| Learning to Use a Spreadsheet By Doing and By Watching | | BIBAK | 3-22 | |
| Michael P. Kerr; Stephen J. Payne | |||
| An important practical question is: how should instruction for computer
skills be designed to facilitate effective learning? The reported study
examines the instructional efficacy of animated demonstrations within active
and passive learning contexts of teaching basic spreadsheet skills. Four
content-matched instructional regimes were compared: the commercially available
tutorial (a 'scenario machine'), an animated demonstration of this tutorial
being used, and problem-solving supported by either the user manual or a set of
task-specific demonstrations. Acquired spreadsheet skills were then tested on
a standard task. Results indicate a clear learning advantage of
problem-solving, over prompted interaction (the scenario machine).
The study suggests two distinctive roles that animations could exploit within computer instruction. Simply watching an animated demonstration can provide a useful introduction to complex interfaces; additionally, animations can be an effective 'example following' resource for more active problem-solving. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Training, Animated demonstrations, Problem
solving | |||
| Effect of Error Information in Tutorial Documentation | | BIBAK | 23-40 | |
| Ard W. Lazonder; Hans van der Meij | |||
| In learning to use software, people spend at least 30% of their time on
dealing with errors. It could therefore be desirable to exploit users' errors
rather than to avoid them. That is, to include error information in a manual
to support users in dealing with errors. An experiment was performed to
examine the functionality of such error information in a manual for a word
processor. Two manuals were compared, one with error information and one from
which this information was removed. Forty-two subjects were randomly assigned
to one of the two conditions. Subjects who used the manual with error
information were expected to become more proficient at using the word processor
(i.e. to show better constructive and corrective skills) and to develop more
self-confidence. The results were equivocal. On some aspects of skill the
error information in the manual led to better performance (i.e. correcting
syntactic errors). On others it had an adverse effect (i.e. detection of
semantic errors and overall error-correction time). Explanations are advanced
for these findings and topics for further research are identified. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Human error, Tutorial documentation, Error
information, Corrective skills development | |||
| Design and Implementation of a User-Oriented Speech Recognition Interface: The Synergy of Technology and Human Factors | | BIBAK | 41-60 | |
| Sietse H. Kloosterman | |||
| The design and implementation of a user-oriented speech recognition
interface are described. The interface enables the use of speech recognition
in so-called interactive voice response systems which can be accessed via a
telephone connection. In the design of the interface a synergy of technology
and human factors is achieved. This synergy is very important for making
speech interfaces a natural and acceptable form of human-machine interaction.
Important concepts such as interfaces, human factors and speech recognition are
discussed. Additionally, an indication is given as to how the synergy of human
factors and technology can be realised by a sketch of the interface's
implementation. An explanation is also provided of how the interface might be
integrated in different applications fruitfully. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Interface, Speech recognition, Interactive voice
response system | |||
| Interacting Cognitive Subsystems: A Framework for Considering the Relationships between Performance and Knowledge Representations | | BIBAK | 61-85 | |
| Alison J. K. Green | |||
| The paper has two principal aims. The first is to explore the role played
in expertise by information represented in different mental codes. The second
is to forge some links between research in the more traditional problem-solving
domains and research in the domain of human-computer interaction. Barnard's
(1985, 1987) model of human information processing, Interacting Cognitive
Subsystems (ICS), is referred to extensively in order to do this. The ICS
framework distinguishes several different subsystems, each specialised for
processing information represented in particular mental codes. The paper
explores the relationships between tasks and different types of mental
representations. Examples from traditional problem-solving domains and from
the human-computer interaction domain are analysed in terms of their
requirements for different classes of mental representations in order to show
how the approach provides useful insights into the development of skilled
behaviour. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Knowledge representation, Cognitive subsystems | |||
| Understanding Usability Issues Addressed by Three User-System Interface Evaluation Techniques | | BIBAK | 86-108 | |
| Donna L. Cuomo; Charles D. Bowen | |||
| Three structured judgment evaluation techniques were applied to a system
with a graphical direct manipulation style interface, to understand the types
of usability problems they address. These evaluation techniques were cognitive
walkthrough, heuristic evaluation, and the Smith and Mosier (1986) guidelines.
The authors wanted to learn whether the techniques identify problems: across
all stages of user activity, which noticeably affect users' performance with
the system, and which are important to the usability of direct
manipulation-style systems. Results showed that the cognitive walkthrough
method identifies issues almost exclusively within the action specification
stage, while guidelines covered more stages. The walkthrough was best,
however, and the guidelines worst at predicting problems that cause users
noticeable difficulty (as observed during a usability study). All the
techniques could be improved in assessing semantic distance and addressing all
stages on the evaluation side of the HCI activity cycle. To evaluate the
directness of engagements, improved or new techniques are needed. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, User interface, Evaluation, Usability, Cognitive
walk-through, Guidelines | |||
| Reply to Fraser and Wrigley or Definitely Not the Last Word on Language Varieties | | BIB | 109-110 | |
| Jussi Karlgren | |||
| Electronic Bulletin Boards: A Case Study of Computer-Mediated Communication | | BIBAK | 117-134 | |
| Raymond S. Nickerson | |||
| Some observational data are presented on the use of an electronic bulletin
board that serves a community of users within a single company. The major
purposes for which this bulletin board is used are identified and some use
patterns are given. Opportunities for human factors research on this
technology are discussed. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer-mediated communication, Electronic
bulletin boards, Electronic mail | |||
| Multiple Worlds: An Approach to Multimedia Resource Management Using Truth Maintenance | | BIBAK | 135-150 | |
| A. D. Bray; J. L. Alty | |||
| Resource management in a multimedia presentation system is discussed with
reference to the PROMISE multimedia presentation system. Because of the
complex nature of environments such as process control, designers need to be
able to examine the alternative possibilities which arise from their design
decisions. The paper describes an approach to this problem using truth
maintenance. A tool is described which allows multiple views of competing
presentation worlds. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Multimedia, Media alternatives, Resource
allocation, Knowledge base, Truth maintenance, PROMISE | |||
| Studies of Turn-Taking in Computer-Mediated Communication | | BIBAK | 151-171 | |
| Andy McKinlay; Rob Procter; Oliver Masting; Robin Woodburn; John Arnott | |||
| Groupware is designed to provide opportunities for physically dispersed
computer users to co-operate in a manner akin to a face-to-face meeting.
Little is understood, however, of the factors that might influence its success.
One possible factor is 'floor control', or turn-taking, which is an important
feature of face-to-face meetings. The paper describes experiments designed to
examine the importance of turn-taking in computer-mediated communications, in
comparison with face-to-face conversations, and considers means whereby
turn-taking behaviour, and hence the effectiveness of groupware, can be
improved. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer-supported cooperative work,
Conversational analysis, Computer-mediated communications, Turn-taking | |||
| A Conceptualisation of Multiparty Interaction | | BIBAK | 173-189 | |
| Graham Storrs | |||
| An ontology is presented for the field of human-computer interaction (HCI).
This amplifies and extends an earlier version of the conceptualisation (Storrs,
1989). The paper argues that such a conceptualisation is a necessary step in
the development of theory in HCI and discusses the need for and the nature of
such a theory. It is argued that no adequate theory of HCI exists at present
and this paper does not attempt to offer one. The model proposed is based on
the idea that an interaction is an exchange of information between
participating agents through sets of information channels (interfaces) for the
purpose of altering their states. These notions are defined and the paper pays
particular attention to the concepts of participant, interaction and purpose,
describing several different types of participant and the different roles they
may play as well as various dimensions and elements of interactions. Finally,
the strong and weak points of the conceptualisation are discussed in an attempt
to assess its value. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Theoretical model, Multiparty interaction,
Computer-supported co-operative work | |||
| Development and Validation of Icons Varying in their Abstractness | | BIBAK | 191-211 | |
| Mariano Garcia; Albert N. Badre; John T. Stasko | |||
| Icons are used widely in human-computer interfaces. The level of
abstractness-concreteness of an icon and its effect upon performance is of
widespread interest. The authors have devised a quantitative measure for
abstractness based on the complexity of the icon. They test their metric
against subjective judgments of abstractness as identified by two different
groups of subjects. After ranking two sets of 'abstract' and 'concrete' icons,
the authors examined how well the icons were matched to the Pascal constructs
that they represented. Further experiments were conducted using different
groups of subjects to check whether correct matching of the icons with
constructs was influenced by context. In summary the authors found that their
metric was a good match for subjective measures of abstractness-concreteness.
They also found that there is a better identification of concrete icons than
abstract icons. Finally, it was shown that context does affect the correct
identification of icons. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Interfaces, Icons, Abstractness-concreteness | |||
| Prediction of Pointing and Dragging Times in Graphical User Interfaces | | BIBAK | 213-227 | |
| I. Scott MacKenzie; William Buxton | |||
| An experiment is described which demonstrates that the point-drag sequence
common on interactive systems can be modelled as two separate Fitts law tasks
-- a point-select task followed by a drag-select task. Strong prediction
models were built; however, comparisons with previous models were not as close
as the standard error coefficients implied. Caution is therefore warranted in
follow-up applications of models built in research settings. Additionally, the
previous claim that target height is the appropriate substitute for target
width in calculating Fitts' index of difficulty in dragging tasks was not
supported. The experiment described varied the dragging target's width and
height independently. Models using the horizontal width of the drag target or
the smaller of the target's width or height outperformed the target height
model. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Interaction techniques, Pointing and dragging
tasks, Fitts' law, Human performance modelling | |||
| Organisation of Design Activities: Opportunistic, with Hierarchical Episodes | | BIBAK | 235-274 | |
| Willemien Visser | |||
| The organisation of actual design activities, even by experts involved in
routine tasks, is not appropriately characterised by the retrieval of
pre-existing plans, but is opportunistic (possibly with hierarchical episodes
at a local level, but not globally hierarchical). Actually executed design
actions depend, at each moment t, on the evaluation of actions proposed at t-1.
These proposals can be made by pre-established plans, but also by other
action-proposal knowledge structures. This position is supported by results
from diverse empirical design studies. A major reason why design activities
are organised opportunistically is that, even if designers possess plans which
they may retrieve and use, the designers very often deviate from these plans so
that their activities satisfy action-management constraints, of which the most
important is cognitive economy. Two types of variables underlying this
opportunism are discussed: situational and processing.
If design is opportunistically organised, a support system which imposes a hierarchically structured design process will probably handicap designers. Suggestions for systems offering real support are formulated. Keywords: Organisation, Planning, Design activity | |||
| Task-Based Method for Creating Usable Hypertext | | BIBAK | 275-287 | |
| Elizabeth Charnock; Roy Rada; Steve Stichler; Peter Weygant | |||
| Although large hypertext documentation systems have many benefits in the
commercial world, they can be difficult to build and use. To help overcome
both these obstacles, a method under development at Hewlett-Packard assists
authors in creating usable hypertext. A Wizard of Oz experiment was done with
traditional on-line documentation and hypertext documentation to see what users
liked and disliked. The experiment showed the need for a set of hypertext
construction rules to ensure usability. Following these rules, and with
computer assistance, authors are expected to do a task analysis of users'
activities, to identify critical objects and create content nodes for them, to
create links between nodes within clearly defined and cognitively justified
limits, and to conduct usability tests on the resulting hypertext volume.
Whilst this method recognises the importance of good clear writing, the rules
and suggested practices are not primarily about writing or screen design, but
about creating a coherent navigational web that ensures success among
commercial users of hypertext. The authoring system described in this paper
has been developed for the HP Help system, which has been adopted as the common
help delivery system for developers of Common Open Systems Environments on
Unix-like platforms. Keywords: Hypertext, Authoring documentation, Usability | |||
| Comparative Analysis of Task Analysis Products | | BIBAK | 289-309 | |
| Andy Whitefield; Becky Hill | |||
| Given the number and variety of task analysis (TA) products in the
human-computer interaction literature, it is often difficult to understand
exactly what they contain and how they differ from each other. This paper
presents a schema for the possible content of a TA product, and uses the schema
to examine in detail four particular products. A comparison of these enables
the identification of five suggested features for distinguishing between TA
products: the psychological status of the behaviours; any fixed behaviours; the
number of levels in the decomposition; any fixed levels in the decomposition;
and the separation of objects and behaviours. Both the schema and the
distinguishing features support the comparative assessment of TA products. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Task analysis, Comparative assessment of TA
products | |||
| Delivering HCI Modelling to Designers: A Framework and Case Study of Cognitive Modelling | | BIBAK | 311-341 | |
| Simon Buckingham Shum; Nick Hammond | |||
| The human-computer interaction (HCI) research community is generating a
large number of usability-oriented models and design frameworks. However, a
critical factor which will determine whether any of these achieve significant
penetration into the real world of software design is the effort required by
practitioners to understand and apply them. In short, analytic tools for
usability design must themselves be usable. In response to this challenge, we
present a framework which identifies four different 'gulfs' between
user-centred modelling and design approaches, and their intended users. These
gulfs are potential opportunities to support designers if a given analytic
approach can be encapsulated in appropriate forms. We then illustrate the
framework's application with a concrete example. An evaluation is reported
which investigates gulfs associated with an approach which uses an expert
system to automate cognitive modelling for human factors designers. An early
prototype was evaluated in order to assess the knowledge required to use it.
The study demonstrates that whilst this tool does shield users from the
complexities of the underlying modelling, they need to understand the way in
which it builds its description of the task and user interface. Implications
for bridging the different gulfs are then considered. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Cognitive modelling, Evaluation | |||
| Foundations of Multimodal Representations: A Taxonomy of Representational Modalities | | BIBAK | 347-371 | |
| Niels Ole Bernsen | |||
| Advances in information technologies are producing a very large number of
possible interface modality combinations which are potentially useful for the
expression and exchange of information in human-computer interaction. However,
a principled basis for analysing arbitrary input/output modality types and
combinations as to their capabilities of information representation and
exchange is still lacking. The paper presents a generative approach to the
analysis of output modality types and their combinations and takes some steps
towards its implementation, departing from a taxonomy of generic unimodal
modalities of representation. A small number of key properties appear
sufficient for creating a taxonomy of generic output modalities which is
relatively simple, robust, intuitively plausible and reasonably complete.
These (orthogonal) properties are: analogue and non-analogue representations;
arbitrary and non-arbitrary representations; static and dynamic
representations; linguistic and non-linguistic representations; different media
of representation; and modality structure. The work presented is part of the
larger research agenda of modality theory. Keywords: Interfaces, Modalities, Representations | |||
| User Interface Design for Older Adults | | BIBAK | 373-393 | |
| J. Morgan Morris | |||
| The percentage of older adults is expected to increase to unprecedented
levels within the next decade. Little attention has been devoted to
understanding, organizing, and accommodating the needs of older adults with
respect to interaction with computers. Indeed, most usability studies have
focused on the needs of younger adults, to the neglect of the elderly. As
computerized products increasingly appeal to broader audiences, the needs of
older adults will become a concern for designers. This review focuses on the
organization and presentation of characteristics of older adult learners, along
with recommendations based on those characteristics, with the hope that their
accessibility will enhance designer intuition and provide suitable information
to guide user testing. Keywords: User interfaces, Older adults, Adult education | |||
| Interdisciplinary Collaboration: A Case Study of Software Development for Fashion Designers | | BIBAK | 395-410 | |
| Mike Scaife; Eleanor Curtis; Charlie Hill | |||
| There is an increasing involvement of different disciplines in requirements
capture. However, such collaboration can result in the replacement of one set
of problems with another as the priorities of systems designers conflict with
those of social science researchers. Some of these difficulties are
illustrated by a description of the course of a project to develop a software
tool for fashion designers. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Software development, Prototyping | |||
| Review of Graphical Notations for Specifying Direct Manipulation Interfaces | | BIBAK | 411-431 | |
| C. H. E. Phillips | |||
| At the early stage of interface design, the designer requires models and
notations that can assist with reasoning and the exploration of ideas, and
which are unconstrained by implementation issues. The review focuses on
graphical notations for specifying the underlying behaviour of direct
manipulation interfaces. Parallels are drawn with the requirements of
notations employed in the more general areas of system requirements
specifications. A number of existing graphical notations are compared and
contrasted through a common example drawn from the Macintosh interface, and the
required scope of an ideal notation for describing the behaviour of direct
manipulation interfaces is defined. Keywords: Direct manipulation, Interface design, Graphical dialogue notations | |||
| Structure for User-Oriented Dialogues in Computer-Aided Telephony | | BIBAK | 433-449 | |
| K. Brownsey; M. Zajicek; J. Hewitt | |||
| Members of The Speech Project, at Oxford Brookes University, have been
experimenting with alternative structures for 'goal-seeking' dialogues. A
dialogue prototyping system has been developed that can instantiate different
dialogue structures kept on file. These become active after being installed
using dynamic data structures. Input is achieved using speech recognition for
a small range of words, and output is in the form of pre-recorded speech
messages. The dialogues thus created employ a new approach, and replace the
usual menu-structure with a simpler question-answer process.
The nature of dialogues using computer aided telephony is analysed, and then the work done by members of The Speech Project on an alternative approach using a simpler dialogue structure is described. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer-aided telephony, Relevance-directed
network | |||