| The Contribution of Practitioner Case Studies to Human-Computer Interaction Science | | BIB | 3-7 | |
| Ruven Brooks | |||
| You're Right About the Cure: Don't Do That | | BIBAK | 8-25 | |
| Harold Thimbleby | |||
| A major factor of system usability is whether the system works at all. This
paper discusses bugs and the social environment that allows and encourages them
to exist. Many bugs are known about and accepted when software is released to
users. They could have been corrected if there had been any motivation to do
so. Although individual programmers are often responsible for bugs, various
forces within the computing industry, including mistrust of users, drive
software manufacturers to strategies that exacerbate the problems. Such
methods as software manufacturers adopt 'in defence' not only work against
users but also undermine scientific work, which in turn retards the advancement
of HCI generally. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Bugs, Software reliability | |||
| Redefining Software: A Comment on Thimbleby's Paper | | BIBAK | 26-32 | |
| Paul A. Booth | |||
| The aim of this commentary is not to examine Thimbleby's criticisms of the
general state of software, but to question his suggested solutions to this
problem. Thimbleby proposes two remedies: that software manufacturers be made
legally and financially responsible for any loss or damage that arises as a
result of any dysfunction of their software, and that these manufacturers
employ formal methods as a means of ensuring the consistency and quality of
their products. Although these proposals might appear eminently reasonable, it
is suggested that these issues are more complex than they first appear, and
that the remedies proposed by Thimbleby have a number of shortcomings. Keywords: Software, Formal methods, Human-computer interaction, Field trials | |||
| A Methodology for the Design of Computerised Qualitative Research Tools | | BIBAK | 33-58 | |
| John Read Davies | |||
| To produce a design specification for tools to aid the ethnographic
researcher in the task of qualitative data analysis, close collaboration is
required between ethnographer and system designer. A collaborative design
methodology is proposed which includes: interviews, graphical models of the
analysis process, verbal protocols, a task-theoretic analytic model, and two
successive prototype systems. The issues involved in putting the methodology
into practice are reported together with the results at each stage. The
project was successful in producing a specification for a system with which
potential users were very satisfied. An implementation of the system needs
much testing 'in the field' before a conclusion can be reached on its general
suitability for ethnography. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Data analysis, Design methodology | |||
| Using a Touchscreen for Simple Tasks | | BIBAK | 59-74 | |
| John D. Gould; Sharon L. Greene; Stephen J. Boies; Antonia Meluson; Marwan Rasamny | |||
| This work was done in the context of an interdisciplinary project (called
ITS) aimed at producing new tools for computer application development. One
motivation is to provide designers with a computer-based toolkit from which
they can select human-computer interaction techniques appropriate to various
contexts and conditions. These experiments extend our work to touchscreens,
and provide a basis of comparison with keyboards and arrow keys. Three
human-computer interaction methods, including basic entry and autocompletion,
were studied in two simple laboratory scenarios: participants specified dates
and airlines reservations. Autocompletion was preferred over, and was faster
than, basic entry. The a priori countable, minimum number of touches required
to use a particular interaction method is a good predictor of how much time
people will need to use that interaction method on a particular task. Similar
results were found previously with keyboards and arrow keys. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Input devices, Touchscreens, Autocompletion | |||
| The Predictability of Commands in a Spreadsheet Program | | BIBAK | 75-82 | |
| Norman S. Guadagno; David M. Lane; Richard R. Batsell; H. Albert Napier | |||
| The ability to predict users' commands in Lotus 1-2-3 was investigated.
Keystroke data was collected from subjects in their normal work environment,
with over 2700 commands being analysed. The data was used to construct
transitional probability matrices that were then used to predict commands based
on their immediate predecessors. Approximately half of the users' commands
were correctly predicted in this manner. Also of interest was how often the
users' commands would be either the most likely or the second most likely
command given the previous commands. When the previous two commands were used
to derive two predictions, the probability that the users' next command would
be one of the two predicted commands was 0.81. The average probability of
command repetition was 0.33. It was concluded that users appear to be
extremely predictable in the Lotus 1-2-3 environment, and this predictability
could serve as the foundation for an interface that aids the user by providing
easy access to the next most likely command to be issued and by adapting the
probabilities of command use over time. Keywords: User interfaces, Command predictability, Spreadsheet programs | |||
| An Overview of Knowledge Acquisition Methods | | BIBAK | 83-91 | |
| Margaret Welbank | |||
| An introduction to the different knowledge elicitation methods in common use
is given in this article. First, the considerations that are most important in
determining the choice of knowledge elicitation method in practical business
contexts are discussed. This is followed by a list of methods, described in
terms of these considerations. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of
the practical application of the methods. Keywords: Knowledge-based systems, Knowledge acquisition | |||
| USTM: A New Approach to Requirements Specification | | BIBAK | 92-118 | |
| Linda Macaulay; Chris Fowler; Mark Kirby; Andrew Hutt | |||
| The problem of inadequate requirements specification is well known. It is
argued here that many of the problems stem from an insufficient user
orientation on the part of the specifiers. A number of current approaches to
requirements specification are reviewed and the need for a methodological
approach to requirements capture and specification is discussed. The criteria
for the design of a good methodology are deduced from the literature and a
novel approach to requirements specification is described: this is the User
Skills and Task Match (USTM) methodology. USTM is assessed against other
current approaches and the specified criteria. The aim of the USTM methodology
is to provide a user-centred approach to requirements specification. Attention
is focused on users and their environment at the earliest stage of development
in order to facilitate production of software that provides appropriate
functionality and that clearly supports users in carrying out their roles at
work, i.e. supports the users' cognitive, social and organisational needs.
USTM involves generating data about users and their environment and then
following a structured procedure in order to derive functional and
nonfunctional requirements. The methodology is designed for use by groups of
people, typically from marketing, product design, document design and user
organisations, who are concerned with the specification of requirements for
'generic' systems. A 'generic' system is one that is designed to satisfy the
needs of many different customers/markets (e.g. a point-of-sale system or
personnel system). Keywords: Design methodologies, Requirements specification, User-centred approaches,
Cooperative requirements capture, Group working support methods, Marketing to
design | |||
| Human-Centered Expert Systems: A Response to Taylorism and the Scientific Paradigm | | BIBAK | 119-128 | |
| Peter Holden | |||
| Taylorism cannot be rationalised at the individual perspective to the
exclusion of the business, technical and political perspectives. Nor can
Taylorism be discussed as a historian might. Taylorism is a real and visible
dimension of a wider scientific paradigm which pervades British Industry.
Expert systems and advanced information technology are especially prone to this
paradigm. A failing is that the UK, unlike Japan and some European countries,
has yet to recognise this. Keywords: Taylorism, Expert systems, Machine-centred, Human-centred | |||
| What Philosophy Can Offer to Information Science: The Example of Medical Expert Systems | | BIBAK | 131-146 | |
| Jacques N. Catudal | |||
| The objective of this article is to begin recovering an account of knowledge
organisation that is based on the cumulative contributions philosophers have
made to this topic throughout history, and to provide an account that is
immediately useful to information scientists who face the problems of
information organisation. For the purpose of this exercise, I treat the terms
'knowledge' and 'information' as synonyms; both 'knowledge organisation' and
'information organisation' are understood in this special sense to entail the
activity of organising concepts. Accordingly, I argue that hierarchical
concept organisations are most usefully conceived of as dynamic and open-ended
systems; I also detail the difference the argument makes to the construction
and management of concept organisations for use in medical expert systems. Keywords: Knowledge organisation, Medical expert systems, Philosophy | |||
| A Meta-model for Interacting with Computers | | BIBAK | 147-160 | |
| Jakob Nielsen | |||
| A large number of models and definitions of the term 'model' are used in the
field of human-computer interaction. A taxonomy of the relevant models
together with a proposed set of names for the most commonly used types of
models is presented. This framework offers a more systematic approach to the
use of HCI models than the patchwork of different definitions currently used.
Further, a notation is introduced to classify the different kinds of models in a systematic and readable way. The basis for this taxonomy is the definition of the actors of interest in building the models: the user, the designer, the computer system, the researcher, the task domain, the world, and the manual. Each model has one subject (owner) which is one of these actors. Each model also has an object which may be either an actor, a combination of actors, or another model. For example, a metaphor may be considered as a model of the user's actual conceptual model of the computer system (i.e. a class UUC-model: a user's model of a user's model of a computer) Keywords: Models, Terminology, Taxonomies, Notation, Metaphors, Conceptual models | |||
| Expanding Human-Computer Interaction by Computer-Aided Creativity | | BIBAK | 161-174 | |
| Tapani Savolainen | |||
| The paper suggests that human-computer interaction should be enhanced by
embedding computer-aided creativity (CAC) features into systems to use a larger
portion of human skills and to include some motivational and emotional aspects
into systems thus making them easier to accept. The paper is a revised work
based on the author's previous papers about computer-aided creativity
(Savolainen, 1988; 1989). The research is still in the idea-definition phase,
but there is already some evidence deduced from existing phenomena and early
CAC experiments that a special CAC viewpoint to interface design might be
appropriate. The reason for early publishing is the need for interdisciplinary
discussion and development of ideas in the rather new area of CAC. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer aided creativity, Representation | |||
| Human Aspects of Interactive Multimedia Communication | | BIBAK | 175-189 | |
| Stephen Gale | |||
| The aim of the VISION project was to determine the value added to an office
system by incorporating audio and video. The performance, feelings and
perceptions of work groups were measured while they carried out cooperative
tasks in a controlled environment using an experimental video communication
system. The results showed no significant differences in the quality of the
output, or the time taken to complete the tasks, under three conditions: data
sharing; data sharing plus audio; data sharing plus audio and video. The
results suggest that high bandwidth communication is particularly effective for
social, informal communication. Finally, some of the implications and issues
for HCI community are discussed. Keywords: Multimedia, Interpersonal communication, Office systems, Computer supported
cooperative work, Group interfaces | |||
| Historical Analysis: A Method for Evaluating Requirement Capture Methodologies | | BIBAK | 190-204 | |
| C. J. H. Fowler; M. A. R. Kirby; L. A. Macaulay | |||
| Historical analysis is a new method for evaluating requirement capture
methodologies. The method consists of three components. First there is the
application of a specification analysis technique. This technique is applied
to the requirement specification of an existing software product, and is used
to predict performance of a product built to that specification. The second
component involves surveying actual use of the product. The third component
allows a comparison to be made between the predicted and actual product
performance. A valid requirements capture methodology should successfully
anticipate a significant number of the actual performance problems. The method
was used to evaluate the user skills and task match (USTM) methodology. Two
case studies were undertaken. The results from the case-work confirm the value
of USTM, and demonstrate the power of the historical analysis method as an
evaluation tool. Keywords: Requirements capture methodologies, Evaluation product dysfunction,
Stakeholder analysis | |||
| Lean Cuisine: No Sauces, No Courses! | | BIBAK | 205-216 | |
| Gilbert Cockton | |||
| Apperley and Spence's Lean Cuisine is presented as a notation for early menu
design, based on idealised definition of a meneme. This presentation is
misleading. Rather, Lean Cuisine addresses one part of the design on the
intended conceptual model for a system. Lean Cuisine is unnecessarily
constrained by the arbitrary narrowing of what a meneme can be. The meneme and
menu rationale behind Lean Cuisine is examined, and rejected in favour of an
empirical requirements-bases approach. An architectural context is used to
re-present the Lean Cuisine technique as an application modelling abstraction. Keywords: Menu design, Design notations, Application modelling, Abstraction | |||
| An Interface Prototyping System Based on Lean Cuisine | | BIBAK | 217-226 | |
| P. S. Anderson; M. D. Apperley | |||
| Lean Cuisine, an interface design notation derived from a study of the
behaviour of menu systems is examined as the basis for a prototyping
environment for direct manipulation interfaces. By using the Seeheim model for
user interface management systems to categorize the model information that can
be extracted from a Lean Cuisine specification, it is shown that a description
of both the action and control layers can be derived. The direct
implementation of these layers from a Lean Cuisine specification is described. Keywords: Interface design tools, Interface design techniques, Rapid simulation,
Prototyping | |||
| Enhancing the Efficiency of Multiparty Interaction Through Computer Mediation | | BIBAK | 227-246 | |
| David G. Novick; Jonathan Walpole | |||
| People use various techniques to reduce the complexity of realtime
multiparty conversational interaction. These techniques -- formal meetings,
for example -- generally restrict the format of the interaction in an attempt
to reduce the amount of control information which must be processed by each
conversant. This allows the conversants to concentrate more on domain specific
information but severely reduces the efficiency of interaction. Previous
approaches to the design of computer-mediated interaction (CMI) systems have
largely attempted to automate such mechanisms.
This paper examines the current state of research in the area of CMI systems and suggests a new direction for research in this area based on the utilisation of control information to increase communicative efficiency. To demonstrate the practical application of these ideas, an initial design for a CMI system which uses the concept of virtual conversants is presented. The CMI system assumes the burden of processing control information and presents to each conversant: * a two party interaction model for control information * a multiparty interaction model for domain information. Keywords: Computer-mediated interaction, Multiparty interaction, Communication | |||
| Further Discussion on Increasing the Efficiency of Multiparty Interaction | | BIB | 247-252 | |
| Tom Boyle | |||
| 3M: A User Modelling Interface of an Expert System for X-Ray Topographic Image Interpretation | | BIBAK | 259-278 | |
| Tardi Tjahjadi; D. Keith Bowen; Jeffrey R. Bevan | |||
| This paper discusses user modelling techniques and presents the design and
implementation of the 3M user modelling interface of INTEREX. INTEREX is an
expert system for X-ray topographic image interpretation which assists its
users in identifying and analysing a number of defects that can occur in
high-quality crystals. 3M consists of a monitor, a model and a modifier. It
is used to adapt the consultation route and the explanations provided by
INTEREX to three categories of users. It demonstrates the use of an implicit,
individual, dynamic and long-term user model to enable an expert system to
accommodate users with different levels of expertise. Keywords: User interface, User modelling techniques, User models, Expert systems,
X-ray topography | |||
| HCI 'Intraface Model' for System Design | | BIBAK | 279-296 | |
| Michael Forrester; David Reason | |||
| We outline an alternative model of the interface in HCI, the 'intraface', in
response to design issues arising from navigational and learning problems in
hypertext domains. Ours is a model of general application to computer systems.
It is composed of four key elements, identifiable within a dynamic
interconnected context. These are the user; his/her interests; the tools
employed and the 'ensemble' of representations brought to bear. In this paper
we sketch the present shortcomings of HCI design before outlining the
background for the model which draws upon two themes in contemporary
psychology, conversational analysis and 'affordance' realist theories in
perception. This framework allows for the development of principles of
cooperation, user engagement and learning in HCI environments. Keywords: Intraface, HCI design, Conversational analysis, The 'affording' intraface | |||
| Monitoring Hypertext Users | | BIBAK | 297-312 | |
| Cathy Taylor; John Self | |||
| This paper reports a study to investigate the feasibility of using
techniques of learner modelling from intelligent tutoring systems to support
users of hypertext systems. The problems of disorientation experienced by
hypertext users may be less significant in educationally realistic settings
that suggested by previous studies. As a result of our study we conclude that
(1) users are rather good at monitoring their own use of a hypertext system and
(2) provided that the user's goals and expert paths through the database are
both known, then the system, by the overlay modelling technique, may
successfully monitor the user's actions. Keywords: Learner models, User models, Hypertext, Intelligent tutoring, Browsing | |||
| Planning Procedural Advice | | BIBAK | 313-329 | |
| G. Nigel Gilbert; Marina Jirotka | |||
| A planner which generates advice about the procedures which should be
carried out by a human agent in order to achieve a goal is described. The fact
that the agent is a person, not a robot, makes it possible to develop plans
cooperatively with the user in the course of a dialogue, but imposes special
requirements on the planner. The planner should be capable of taking advantage
of the user's knowledge and abilities; of providing partial plans; of planning
even in the absence of complete knowledge about the user's current state; of
re-planning when the execution does not succeed or the situation changes; and
of providing explanations of its advice. The paper considers the implications
of these requirements on the design of such an advisory planner, implemented as
part of the 'Advice System', a knowledge-based system for advising members of
the public about welfare benefits. Keywords: Planning, Cooperative systems, Advice, Procedures | |||
| Reflexive CSCW: Supporting Long-Term Personal Work | | BIBAK | 330-336 | |
| Harold Thimbleby; Stuart Anderson; Ian H. Witten | |||
| CSCW (computer-supported cooperative work) is an active research area with
many promising applications and benefits. We argue that the plight of the
individual user can also be viewed as a CSCW problem, for the individual
frequently acts as multiple persona: performing many independent tasks, perhaps
in several places. We propose reflexive CSCW to address such issues.
Solutions in the reflexive case will of course be of benefit to users even if
they are working in a conventional multi-user CSCW context; proposed solutions
in CSCW can be re-presented for individual users. Keywords: Reflexive CSCW, Personal interfaces, Project management | |||
| Incremental Maintenance of Semantic Links in Dynamically Changing Hypertext Systems | | BIBAK | 337-366 | |
| Simon M. Kaplan; Yoelle S. Maarek | |||
| One purported advantage of hypertext systems is the ability to move between
semantically related parts of a document (or family of documents). If the
document is undergoing frequent modification (for example while an author is
writing a book or while a software design stored in the hypertext system is
evolving) the question arises as to how to incrementally maintain semantic
interconnections in the face of the modifications.
The paper presents an optimal technique for the incremental maintenance of such interconnections as a document evolves. The technique, based on theories of information retrieval based on lexical affinities and theories of incremental computation, updates semantic interconnections as nodes are checked into the hypertext system (either new or as a result of an edit). Because we use the semantic weight of lexical affinities to determine which affinities are meaningful in the global context of the document, introducing a new affinity or changing the weight of an existing affinity can potentially have an effect on any node in the system. The challenge met by our algorithm is to guarantee that despite this potentially arbitrary impact, we still update link information optimally. Once established the semantic interconnections are used to allow the user to move from node to node based not on rigid connections but instead on dynamically determined semantic interrelationships among the nodes. Keywords: Incremental maintenance, Semantic links, Hypertext systems | |||
| Datenbank-DIALOG: How to Communicate with Your Database in German (and Enjoy It) | | BIBAK | 367-381 | |
| Harald Trost; Ernst Buchberger | |||
| The paper discusses the requirements for practical natural language
interfaces (NLIs), claiming that acceptance is not only based on the linguistic
capabilities of a system but on other features as well, particularly
portability and ease of handling. It is shown how these features have been
realised in Datenbank-DIALOG, a German language interface to relational
databases. After a brief look at the linguistic capabilities of
Datenbank-DIALOG we demonstrate our approach towards a portable and
easy-to-handle system. We also show the dependability of the solutions on the
design of the core system. The aspects mentioned have rarely been treated in
the technical literature, furthermore it is their combination and interaction
that makes Datenbank-DIALOG a suitable device for casual users of databases. Keywords: Natural language processing, Database interface, Artificial intelligence | |||