| Creating a Design Science of Human-Computer Interaction | | BIBAK | 3-12 | |
| John M. Carroll | |||
| An increasingly important task of computer science is to support the
analysis and design of computers as things to learn from, as tools to use in
one's work, as media for interacting with other people. Human-computer
interaction (HCI) is the speciality area that addresses this task. Through the
past two decades, HCI has pursued a broad and ambitious scientific agenda,
progressively integrating its research concerns with the contexts of system
development and use. This has created an unprecedented opportunity to manage
the emergence of new technology so as to support socially responsive
objectives. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, History and trends, Software psychology,
Iterative development, Analytic models, Design rationale | |||
| Using Unfamiliar Programming Languages: The Effects on Expertise | | BIBAK | 13-30 | |
| Jean Scholtz; Susan Wiedenbeck | |||
| The paper begins by describing a model of the influences operating when an
experienced programmer learns to program in an unfamiliar language. It then
reports on an empirical study which investigated how a change of programming
language affects experienced programmers. Programmers solved a familiar
problem using two unfamiliar languages. It was found that programmers used
knowledge from past experience in solving the problem, but often had to adapt
the knowledge to take good advantages of the new languages. They were only
partly successful in doing this, and overall performance was poor. The
solution process of the programmers was disrupted, as shown by more plan
changes and more extensive backward planning. The two unfamiliar languages had
impacts at different levels in the planning process. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Programming, Program languages | |||
| Effects of Linguistic Sophistication on the Usability of a Natural Language Interface | | BIBAK | 31-59 | |
| Alan Burton; Anthony P. Steward | |||
| Casual users of database systems are not skilled in structured query
languages. Natural language interfaces (NLIs) could provide them with the
flexibility and ease of use that they require. The paper challenges the dictum
that the usability of an NLI is enhanced when its linguistic capabilities are
extended. It is argued that effective natural language communication needs a
naturalistic sublanguage of English, reduced in complexity, but nevertheless
providing the flexibility of natural language input. Two investigations are
described, both of which involved real users performing real information
retrieval tasks. The first gives an insight into the detailed characteristics
of such a sublanguage, providing a comparison with earlier research. The
second compares the effect of intersentential linking devices like ellipsis, on
the usability of an NLI, with that of simple, extralinguistic editing
facilities. The results show that enhanced linguistic capabilities can indeed
improve usability under certain circumstances, but that extralinguistic
enhancements can be just as effective. The results also show that usability
can actually degrade as both the linguistic and the extralinguistic
capabilities of an interface are improved. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Natural language interface, Casual user,
Usability, Linguistic sophistication, Ellipsis, Immediate focus | |||
| A Study of Breakdowns and Repairs in a Computer-Mediated Communication System | | BIBAK | 61-77 | |
| Mike Sharples | |||
| There have been few naturalistic studies of synchronous computer-mediated
communication. For two years a telewriting system was used for tutoring
students at the UK Open University, connecting up to ten study centres and
adding graphic communication to voice-only teleconferencing. This paper
presents the findings of a study of the operation of the system, concentrating
on breakdowns in communication and the technical and organisational changes
needed to overcome them. The paper concludes with recommendations for the
design of future telewriting systems and guidelines for the deployment of
computer-mediated communication systems as part of working life. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer-mediated communication,
Teleconferencing | |||
| Managing Design Ideas with a Shared Drawing Tool | | BIBAK | 79-114 | |
| Iva M. Lu; Marilyn M. Mantei | |||
| The generation of design ideas in group discussion is a complex and dynamic
process. The fluent expression of ideas and the ability to interact and build
on representations created by others contributes significantly to the process.
When group members are separated by physical distance, the fluency of this
process is interrupted. Computerized shared drawing tools re-establish this
fluency. Such tools need to aid not only the drawing process, but also the
management of design ideas during the process. The paper lays the groundwork
for the design of the idea management portion of a shared drawing tool. It
presents a list of group idea management behaviours and identifies user
requirements in support of these activities. A prototype shared drawing system
is described which attempts to incorporate the user requirements into an
interface design. The paper then presents the results of a usability study
conducted on the prototype. The interface performed miserably, but the study
provided support for the user requirements and gave detailed insight into how a
shared drawing interface should be designed. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer-supported cooperative work, Shared
drawing tools, Groupware | |||
| Understanding and Uncovering Design Issues in Synchronous Shared-Window Conferencing | | BIBAK | 115-130 | |
| P. T. Hughes; M. E. Morris; T. A. Plant | |||
| The paper reports on an investigation of the design of integrated computer
and telecommunications systems for supporting informally-organised group work.
This has entailed an iterative, user-involved approach to design, because such
systems will ultimately be accepted in the work-place only if they prove to
augment, and not hinder, people's work practices. Much work, especially
office-based work, is performed in small, informal groups. The authors
therefore concentrated on the support necessary for the effective operation of
these groups, instead of focusing on more formalised group work. The results
obtained provide a sound insight into how better to support co-operative work
and the authors gained equally valuable experience in the evaluation of
software with geographically distributed users. The paper presents an overview
of the design and evaluation approach, summarises the results, and includes a
brief discussion on potential future research topics. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer-supported cooperative work,
Shared-windows, Shared objects, Teleconferencing, User-centred design | |||
| A Task-Based Cognitive Model for User-Network Interaction: Defining a Task Taxonomy to Guide the Interface Designer | | BIBAK | 139-166 | |
| Paul M. Mullins; Siegfried Treu | |||
| Consistency has generally been viewed as a desirable characteristic of
human-computer interfaces. Its significance is increased in the design of
interfaces to open network environments, involving heterogeneous assortments of
hardware and software, lack of central authority, and a constantly changing
(and growing) user community. This paper addresses consistency with respect to
the tasks that an interface should support in the virtual communication link
between a user and any network-based application. A cognitive model was
constructed to provide a meaningful framework for the development of a
hierarchically structured set of tasks. An initial set of 143 tasks was
composed and defined. Then, using an extensive questionnaire, a group of
expert users of computer networks was asked to evaluate the hypothesized tasks.
This process resulted in a task hierarchy with 89 leaf nodes representing basic
tasks. The task definitions are outlined in an appendix. The cognitive model,
task sets and task evaluation technique are intended to have practical utility
for engineers, system designers, and software developers of user interfaces to
complex systems. To illustrate their use, a prototype system was implemented
and is briefly described. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, User-network interaction, Network interface
design, Cognitive model, Task analysis, Consistency, Network-oriented tasks | |||
| User-Competence and Other Usability Aspects when Introducing a Patient Administrative System: A Case Study | | BIBAK | 167-191 | |
| Carl Martin Allwood; Tomas Kalen | |||
| An empirical study of a development project implementing a patient
administrative system at a major hospital is reported. An analysis is made of
the training given to the end-users and how this was affected by the events in
the project. The results show how usability aspects such as user-competence
are affected by a number of different factors in the project. The most
important of these are deficiencies in the contract between the delivering
consultant and the health authority, delays in the delivery of the program and
the manual, and a lack of concern in the project for software usability
aspects. For example, the contract between the delivering consultant and the
health authority did not include any agreement about responsibility for
usability aspects, and the delays in the project caused difficulties for user
training. The results show a number of deficiencies in the training, for
example: very little training material was given to the trainees and the
computer exercises were not closely related to the trainees' future work tasks.
We believe that future implementations of patient administrative programs will
be more successful if the deficiencies found in the project studied are
avoided. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Usability, System development process, User
testing, End-user training, Patient administrative systems | |||
| Interpersonal Communication and Human-Computer Interaction: An Examination of the Use of Computers in Medical Consultations | | BIBAK | 193-216 | |
| David Greatbatch; Paul Luff; Christian Heath; Peter Campion | |||
| The paper examines the relationship between human-computer interaction and
interpersonal communication in general practice consultations. Drawing on
detailed analyses of video recordings of consultations conducted by four
doctors in an inner city medical practice, we describe how patients recurrently
coordinate their actions with visible and audible aspects of the doctors' use
of a computer. We then suggest that this linkage between computer use and
communicative conduct raises important conceptual, methodological and
substantive issues for the fields of both HCI and CSCW. Some potential
implications for the design of human computer interactions and for the
development of CSCW systems are outlined. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer-supported cooperative work,
Interpersonal communication, Conversation analysis | |||
| From Rooms to Cyberspace: Models of Interaction in Large Virtual Computer Spaces | | BIBAK | 217-237 | |
| Steve Benford; Adrian Bullock; Neil Cook; Paul Harvey; Rob Ingram; Ok-Ki Lee | |||
| Room metaphors have become increasingly popular as a basis for CSCW systems.
The paper describes how such metaphors might be extended to support large scale
communication through the introduction of a spatial model for mediating
conversations in virtual computer spaces. The model is described in terms of
an abstract mathematical framework and the paper then outlines how this might
be applied to various kinds of CSCW system. As a next step, the combination of
rooms into larger virtual structures is considered and this results in
proposals for structuring, navigating and mapping a large virtual cyberspace
for cooperation. Finally, the paper describes a current prototype application
and reflects on some of the architectural issues involved in its realisation as
a distributed system. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer-supported cooperative work | |||
| Designing with Ethnography: Making Work Visible | | BIBAK | 239-253 | |
| John A. Hughes; Ian Sommerville; Richard Bentley; Dave Randall | |||
| The paper reviews some aspects of a research project in which ethnographic
studies of air traffic controllers at work were used to inform the design of an
electronic flight strip. In particular, it emphasises the important role of
ethnography in gaining an insight into the fine grained and often 'invisible'
aspects of work which are essential to its accomplishment and which must be
taken account of in the design process. The paper also reviews some of the
practical lessons of interdisciplinary working and the role, along with some
limitations, that ethnographic studies can play in the system design process. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Computer-supported cooperative work, Ethnography | |||
| Approaches to Interface Design | | BIBAK | 259-278 | |
| Michael D. Wallace; Terry J. Anderson | |||
| The current literature on interface design is reviewed. Four major
approaches to interface design are identified; craft, cognitive engineering,
enhanced software engineering and technologist. The aim of this classification
framework is not to split semantic hairs, but to provide a comprehensive
overview of a complex field and to clarify some of the issues involved. The
paper goes on to discuss the source of quality in interface design and
concludes with some recommendations on how to improve HCI methods. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Interface design, Craft, Cognitive engineering,
Enhanced software engineering, Technologist | |||
| User Interface Design for Medical Imaging Workstations: Image Display and Processing | | BIBAK | 279-294 | |
| Jim C. Gee; Woodrow Barfield; David R. Haynor; Yongmin Kim | |||
| Conventional diagnostic protocols in radiological viewing require the
availability of a large display space, as exemplified by the film alternator
(or lightbox). However, the recent trend in medical imaging workstation design
is the use of relatively small display screens to present radiological images.
In the study, the efficacy of an alternator-filmstrip metaphor for navigating
through and displaying the images of a patient study is evaluated. The
metaphor relies on the availability of a 'pictorial directory' and accommodates
the concurrent display of a variable number of images on the screen. In
addition the study also evaluated the utility of two commonly available
operations for manipulating the appearance of an image: contrast enhancement
and image magnification. The study consisted of two experimental variables:
availability of a pictorial directory (yes, no) and number of concurrently
displayed images (1, 2, or 4). Twelve radiologists viewed two sets of X-ray
computed tomography (CT) studies for each of the six treatment conditions and
were asked to record an interpretation for each study. Results indicate that
interpretations using the two-image display formats took the least amount of
time per study, whereas the single-image format with access to the pictorial
directory required the longest mean interpretation time. The image
magnification capability was generally not found to be useful for image
interpretation, whereas the contrast manipulation operations were judged
extremely helpful. Implications of the results for medical imaging workstation
design are discussed. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, User interface design, Medical imaging,
Across-display processing | |||
| Patterns of Students' Interactions with a Hypermedia System | | BIBAK | 295-313 | |
| G. A. Hutchings; W. Hall; C. J. Colbourn | |||
| A hypermedia system was introduced into an undergraduate biology curriculum
in order to investigate the patterns of students' interaction with, and
attitudes to such a system, both to develop the interface of the system itself,
and to provide objective means of describing its usage in a real learning
situation. This was seen as a prerequisite to any evaluation of actual
learning outcomes. The paper describes the development process which involved
not only the evolution of the system itself, but the construction and
implementation of assessment tools. The use of these tools enabled the authors
to draw a number of conclusions about the patterns of interaction that students
demonstrated when given various learning tasks to carry out. Interactions were
seen to be driven primarily by the task, rather than by any individual
preferences on the part of the users. It is suggested that this may have
important implications for the knowledge that users gain from hypermedia
systems. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Hypermedia, Navigation, Education | |||
| MOG User Interface Builder: A Mechanism for Integrating Application and User Interface | | BIBAK | 315-331 | |
| Andy Colebourne; Peter Sawyer; Ian Sommerville | |||
| Tools which provide graphical editing techniques for the design of user
interface presentations are increasingly commonplace. Such tools vary widely
in the mechanisms used to define user interfaces and while some are general
purpose, others are targeted at particular application domains. Designers
faced with varying requirements must choose one tool and live with its
shortcomings, purchase a number of different tools, or implement their own.
The paper describes an approach to facilitating the latter by providing a
library of augmented user interface components called MOG objects which embody
both end-user and editing semantics. User interface design tools based on this
approach need only provide mechanisms for composing MOG objects into user
interfaces and the addition of any other, higher-level functionality.
MOG-based user interfaces retain an in-built editing capability and are
inherently tailorable. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Interface, Graphic user interface builder, User
interface prototyping, Tailorability | |||
| On Distinguishing Work Tasks and Enabling Tasks | | BIBAK | 333-347 | |
| Andy Whitefield; Anthony Esgate; Ian Denley; Paul Byerley | |||
| Which behaviours of an interactive work system perform the work that the
system was designed to do? And what do the other behaviours do? The idea of
distinguishing work tasks and enabling tasks is presented. Suggestions are
made on how to distinguish them, based on a conception for human-computer
interaction. Suggestions are also made as to how the ideas may be useful in
the design of interactive work systems. The ideas are illustrated by the
analysis of some actual user-computer interactions in the domain of text
editing. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Task analysis, Work domain, Work tasks, Enabling
tasks | |||
| Sublanguages and Registers: A Note on Terminology | | BIBAK | 348-350 | |
| Jussi Karlgren | |||
| The term sublanguage from mathematical linguistics confuses interaction
researchers and leads them to believe that implementing natural language
interfaces is easier than it is. The term register from sociolinguistics is
proposed instead. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Natural language, Interfaces, Sublanguage,
Register | |||
| Assessment of the Minimalist Approach to Computer User Documentation | | BIBAK | 355-370 | |
| Hans van der Meij; Ard W. Lazonder | |||
| The minimalist approach (Carroll, 1990a) advocates the development of a
radically different type of manual when compared to a conventional one. For
example, the manual should proceed almost directly to procedural skills
development rather than building a conceptual model first. It ought to focus
on authentic tasks practiced in context, as opposed to mock exercises and
isolated practice. In addition, it should stimulate users to exploit their
knowledge and thinking, as opposed to imposing the writer's view and discussing
everything that users should see or know.
In the first part of the paper the construction of a tutorial based on the minimalist principles is described. A parallel is drawn with constructivism with which minimalism shares important notions of instruction. In the second part, an experiment is described in which the minimal manual was tested against a conventional one. The outcome favoured the new manual. For example, minimal manual users completed about 50% more tasks successfully on a performance test and displayed significantly more self-reliance (e.g. more self-initiated error-recoveries, and fewer manual consultations). Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Documentation, User manuals | |||
| Hypertext and Expert Systems: The Possibilities for Integration | | BIBAK | 371-384 | |
| Pauline A. Smith; John R. Wilson | |||
| Expert systems are knowledge-based reasoning systems which attempt to
capture the expertise and problem-solving abilities of a human expert within a
fairly narrow field. Human problem-solving is characterised by the ability to
handle unexpected events and to approach problems in a variety of ways,
reorganizing information and adjusting strategies to suit new situations.
Hypertext systems are also knowledge-based systems in which chunks of
information are linked together in a non-sequential way thus providing the
vehicle for intuitive, non-linear access to information which more closely
resembles intelligent human behaviour. From these descriptions it would seem
that the integration of these two complementary technologies should lead to
more 'intelligent' problem-solving and information systems. The aim of such
integration being to maximize joint performance and to achieve synergy -- an
integrated system which is greater than the sum of its parts.
Hypertext can be viewed in two ways: as a method of conveying information or as a 'system glue' for linking computer systems to each other or to a user. These approaches give rise to very different types of system and three distinct types of hybrid hypertext/expert system are identified. The paper considers whether such hybrid systems can be used to solve some of the problems which are found to occur with expert system interfaces or whether the combination of two technologies compounds one set of problems with another. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Knowledge-based systems, Hypertext | |||
| Supporting the Use of Guidelines and Style Guides in Professional User Interface Design | | BIBAK | 385-396 | |
| Jonas Lowgren; Ulrika Lauren | |||
| The use of user-interface design knowledge such as general guidelines and
environment-specific style guides can be valuable, and is increasingly required
in professional user-interface design. However, conventional guidelines and
style guides (GL and SG) in the form of documents are consistently found hard
to use. We have earlier demonstrated knowledge-based critiquing to be a
technically feasible way of delivering relevant GL and SG knowledge. The
purpose of this study was to investigate the need and acceptability of such
techniques for professional user-interface designers.
An experiment was carried out where four professional designers developed user-interface prototypes to a functional specification. The designs were evaluated using our GL and SG-based critiquing system, which identified a total of 17 deviations from style-guide requirements or design recommendations. Interviews were conducted with the designers to find the reasons for the deviations and to identify important requirements for a critiquing design-support tool. The deviation analysis points to an existing need for better ways of accessing GL and SG knowledge. The interviews indicate that the designers would find a critiquing tool valuable, provided that it leaves them in control of their work and indicates the severity of the detected deviations. Keywords: Human computer interaction, Interfaces, Interface design, Style guides | |||
| Influence, Discretion and Time Available: A Case Study of HCI Practice in Software Development | | BIBAK | 397-411 | |
| Nick P. Rousseau; Linda Candy; Ernest A. Edmonds | |||
| In the field of human-computer interaction, reports of the involvement of
its practitioners in system development projects are rarely available for
general scrutiny. The paper draws upon the experience of an HCI team at work
within a large collaborative software development project. This experience of
four years of HCI practice suggests three key, interdependent, factors that are
central to the effectiveness of HCI input. The factors are influence,
discretion and time available, and are discussed in the context of other
report, of the role of HCI practitioners in the field. A number of issues are
identified about the nature and scope of HCI in practice. The experience
reported is relevant to software development in general, particularly where
there are several groups working, sometimes in different sites, towards a
unified outcome. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Software development, Multidisciplinary
projects, HCI practice | |||
| Where Should a Public Access Health Information System be Sited? | | BIBAK | 413-421 | |
| R. B. Jones; E. Edgerton; I. Baxter; L. M. Naven; J. Ritchie; G. Bell; K. Murray | |||
| The use of a touch-screen public access health information system was
evaluated by monitoring system usage, by interviews with an opportunistic
sample of 90 users and by other surveys.
To get the largest number of users, such a system needs to be sited in a highly visible setting where there are lots of people passing. For most people, privacy does not appear to be a problem. However, some groups may require more privacy and when siting in 'quieter' places, such as a library this may be more important than in busier anonymous places, or in places where health is a 'natural' topic of interest. Waiting rooms may not be the best sites. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Public access computing, Health information,
Privacy, Touch-screen | |||
| Practical User Interface Design Notation | | BIBAK | 423-438 | |
| Peter Windsor; Graham Storrs | |||
| A notation for describing user interfaces has been developed which offers
the benefits of being theoretically well-founded and reasonably formal while at
the same time being of practical use in an industrial software design
environment. The notation is based on a five-layer model of interface software
derived from user interface management system and window management work, and
is, essentially, a state-transitional approach to the description of interfaces
and their behaviour. A short example of the use of the notation is given and
its strengths and weaknesses are discussed. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Interfaces, Notation | |||
| In Defense of Sublinguistics | | BIBAK | 439-440 | |
| Ave Wrigley | |||
| The paper is a response to the argument presented by Jussi Karlgren that the
term sublanguage involves a potentially damaging misunderstanding in human
computer interaction research. The use of the term in the context of a
mathematical concept of language as a set is defended. The definition of
language in terms of probability and the use of domain context to condition
probabilities is suggested as a refinement to this concept. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Sublanguage, Register | |||
| Sublanguage, Register and Natural Language Interfaces | | BIBAK | 441-444 | |
| Norman M. Fraser | |||
| The paper is a commentary on Karlgren (1993) which proposed the term
'register' as a substitute for the term 'sublanguage' in relation to the study
of natural language interfaces. The author proposes that this substitution is
inappropriate for several reasons. First, the term 'sublanguage' has many
meanings and cannot be restricted to the mathematical definition as Karlgren
proposes. Second, terms in natural language will always be loosely defined
because that is their intrinsic nature. Third, register is not a well-defined
sociolinguistic term as Karlgren suggests. Finally the author offers an
alternative description of what a natural language 'sublanguage' is. Keywords: Human-computer interaction, Interfaces, Natural language interfaces,
Sublanguage, Register | |||