| Introduction to the Special Issue | | BIB | i | |
| Andrew B. Whinston | |||
| Structured Discourse for Scientific Collaboration: A Framework for Scientific Collaboration Based on Structured Discourse Analysis | | BIBAK | 1-26 | |
| Matti Hamalainen; Safaa Hashim; Clyde W. Holsapple; Yongmoo Suh; Andrew B. Whinston | |||
| This article describes the initial stage of an exploratory research project
on improving scientific collaboration. For the purpose of laying conceptual
foundations of scientific collaboration, we discuss general requirements of a
collaborative system for scientific researchers. With these requirements in
mind, we outline the technical design of a prototype system to support
scientific collaboration. This design involves a method of structured
discourse and is integrated with electronic mail. The prototype system,
currently being developed, will be tested by the authors who are collaborating
on various research projects in the United States and Finland. Preliminary
results will be available in the near term. Further development will include
the incorporation of project management, negotiation support, and document
production tools into the system. Keywords: Scientific collaboration, Scientific discourse, Dialogue logic,
Argumentation, Structured discourse, Issue nets | |||
| Computers and Coordination in Manufacturing | | BIBAK | 27-46 | |
| Vijay Gurbaxani; Edmond Shi | |||
| This article examines the role of advanced information technologies,
particularly computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), in coordinating
manufacturing activities. Our focus is on understanding the nature of changes
in organizational structure and processes that are a result of, or are
associated with, the introduction of CIM systems. The analysis is premised on
the observation that coordination tasks are largely related to the acquisition
and processing of information and are, therefore, sensitive to the application
of information technology. Economic theories of organization facilitate the
development of the relationships between information costs and the attributes
of organizations. We use a model of a manufacturing firm, which incorporates
elements of these theories, to study the organizational implications of CIM
systems. Keywords: CIM (computer integrated manufacturing), Organizational economics,
Organization structure, Information costs | |||
| An Approach to Facilitate the Automation of Semistructured and Recurring Negotiations in Organizations | | BIBAK | 47-76 | |
| Carson C. Woo; Man Kit Chang | |||
| Communication is vital to the running of a distributed organization. To
alleviate the amount of time organizational workers spend in communication,
some tools should be provided for them. We propose a set of communication
tools, based on Ballmer and Brennenstuhl's (1981) speech act classification,
which are to be used by organizational workers during negotiations. These
tools provide assistance to the organizational workers and can be used to
program the structured part of the negotiation. Since the preparation and use
of such tools requires additional time and costs, they are only beneficial to
the type of negotiation that has other instances occurring in the future. Keywords: Distributed applications, Office automation, Negotiation, Speech act theory,
Protocol, Communication tools | |||
| A Framework for the Development of Distributed Organizations | | BIBAK | 77-94 | |
| Peter de Jong | |||
| A system, Ubik, is described that builds, executes, and maintains
distributed computer organizations. A computer organization is built using
three organizational components: structure, action, and power. The interaction
among these three components mirrors some of the complex interactions in the
external organization being modeled. The structure of an organization is
modeled with semantic nets built of linked-together objects. The action of an
organization is represented by an object called a configurator, and initiated
by message passing. The power of an organization is maintained by objects,
called sponsors, which delegate processing power to other objects. Active
messages are used to build specialized objects called constructors, questers,
and tapeworms. They build, query, monitor, and constrain applications running
within an organization.
Ubik is based on the actor concurrent object model. It supports the parallel execution of organizational applications distributed over networked computers. Ubik contains tools for the building of organizational applications by end-users. Programming by example is supported with the use of a pattern-directed language, used within two-dimensional pictures of forms. Distributed rule-based agents are supported using the semantic nets as knowledge bases and the tapeworms as rules. Keywords: Organizational computer systems, Organizational development, Open systems,
Object-based concurrent programming, Active messages, Tapeworms, Rule-based
expert systems, Distributed systems, Parallel systems, Actor object model | |||
| Managerial Communication Patterns | | BIBAK | 95-122 | |
| Raymond R. Panko | |||
| Use of time studies provide detailed information on organizational
communication patterns, offering a rich base of data for identifying promising
new targets for "groupwork" support researchers. This article looks at use of
time data that provide a detailed picture of communication patterns in the
workdays of managers and some other knowledge workers. Keywords: Communication, Groupwork, Deskwork, Meetings | |||
| Intelligent Models of Human Organizations: The State of the Art | | BIBAK | 123-130 | |
| Robert W. Blanning; David R. King; James R. Marsden; Ann C. Seror | |||
| The application of concepts from cognitive science and artificial
intelligence to organizational modeling is a new and exciting area of research
that may yield useful insights into organization theory and behavior. In this
introduction we offer a framework for organizational intelligence, review the
literature in the area, and introduce the articles in this special issue. Keywords: Organizational intelligence, Artificial intelligence, Organizational
symbolism, Organizational learning, Distributed systems | |||
| MAIL-MAN: A Knowledge-Based MAIL Assistant for MANagers | | BIBAK | 131-154 | |
| Luvai F. Motiwalla; Jay F., Jr. Nunamaker | |||
| Although several collaborative office systems have been developed recently
to provide synchronous communication support for managerial work, they have not
capitalized on electronic mail (E-mail), an existing asynchronous office
communication technology widely used by managers. This is because E-mail
technology has yet to incorporate intelligent characteristics and flexibility
to support different office functions, which can enable it to adapt to the
changing and uncertain environment of managerial work. This article addresses
the conceptual and technological issues involved in development of E-mail to
support managerial work with MAIL-MAN, a knowledge-based E-mail system unified
with other office applications to model and support managerial work. Keywords: Electronic mail, Knowledge-based or expert systems, Management support
systems, Organizational modeling | |||
| A Knowledge Representation for Modeling Organizational Productivity | | BIBA | 155-180 | |
| David A. Carlson; Sudha Ram | |||
| The primary objective of effective productivity improvement is to reduce unnecessary and wasteful effort, not simply to speed things up. Constructing an organizational model along these lines might assist a manager in assessing the organization's current state and in moving to a more desirable position. Such models may be construed as managers' mental models. A mental model is not a static set of knowledge, but rather, a dynamic memory that integrates the new information resulting from environmental scanning. Thus, a mental model consists of some internal representation that reflects the essential features and relationships in a corresponding real-world system, for example, the organization. This article proposes an architecture and a representation scheme for implementing computational models that correspond with the mental models in managers' minds. A four-level architecture is outlined that consists of a linguistic layer, an epistemological layer, an object-management layer, and an implementation layer. An iterative, triarchic research method was used that simultaneously developed a theoretical framework, synthesized evidence from an American Express case study, and specified a computational representation. A prototype management support system developed as part of this research, called SPRINT (Strategic Plan and Resource INTegration), is implemented as a frame-based semantic network using a hypertext interface and is programmed in Smalltalk/V286. | |||
| Developing Intelligent Organizations: A Context-Based Approach to Individual and Organizational Effectiveness | | BIBAK | 181-202 | |
| Minder Chen; Yihwa Irene Liou; E. Sue Weber | |||
| Organizations interested in intelligent actions in uncertain or equivocal
environments must possess or create a common context of interaction for
participants in order to coordinate their activities and use information
effectively. In a learning situation, the establishment of an intelligible
context of interaction is especially important because the learner's
assimilation of new information depends on its compatibility with the learner's
existing knowledge and skills. Cognitive theory underlies the authors'
discussion of the functions, development, and expression of intelligence, and
informs their discussion of effective action contexts. Contextual information
systems (CIS) are proposed as mechanisms for helping individuals and
organizations manage personal and enterprise-wide knowledge systems. A domain
analysis methodology, developed to facilitate the creation of appropriate
action contexts, is presented. Finally, the contributions CIS can make to
human and organizational effectiveness are discussed. Keywords: Intelligent organizations, Contextual information systems, Repository,
Collaboration technology, Computer-aided software engineering | |||
| Visual Agents that Model Organizations | | BIBAK | 203-224 | |
| Kenneth A. Griggs | |||
| The successful use of icons in interface design, games, and simulations to
reduce cognitive effort is well established. This article explores an
extension of the concept via a prototype implementation in Smalltalk-80 that
uses object-oriented programming, AI techniques, and iconic "visual agents" as
a means of expanding the scope of the visual model world from narrowly focused
metaphors to organizations themselves. Visual agents are icons that
encapsulate data and behavior of organizational objects including the user.
Just as a desktop metaphor is based on "desktop objects" an organizational
model world includes objects found within an organization. These objects are
classified using a simple hierarchy composed of persons, things, and processes
at the top level and a set of changeable entities at lower levels. This
hierarchy provides the basis for the development of systems that accomplish
managerial level tasks such as scheduling, reporting, advisement, and
assistance. The hierarchical class structure, method inheritance, and
message-passing paradigm of Smalltalk-80 offers an environment, which is
itself, a good model for the approach. Thus, Smalltalk-80, in conjunction with
embedded knowledge bases that provide agents with a limited but functional
"intelligence," complete the approach to organizational modeling proposed here. Keywords: Agents, Environments, Smalltalk, Expert systems, Object-oriented
programming, Graphical user interfaces, Organizational modeling, Knowledge
representation | |||
| An Experimental Approach to Intelligent Organizational Design | | BIBAK | 225-242 | |
| James R. Marsden; David E. Pingry; Ming-Chian Ken Wang | |||
| Organizations in competitive markets have no guarantee of continued
existence. The intelligent firm in such a setting is the firm that can adapt
its structure, the one that has the knowledge necessary to change when change
is optimal, and to make enough profit to survive. We argue that the
intelligent firm must understand the relationships among its structure, its
production inputs (including information technology), and its productivity.
When market and technological conditions dictate that a change in structure is
optimal, the intelligent firm, the successful firm, will change. We argue that
carefully structured and controlled laboratory experiments provide an excellent
source for obtaining the knowledge necessary for organizations to adapt
strategically. We illustrate how such experiments can be used in determining
the relationships between organizational forms and information system
constructs, and in analyzing what mixes yield maximum performance in
decision-theoretic and game theoretic settings. Keywords: Mental models, Semantic network representation, Organizational productivity | |||
| Concepts and Models of Group Membership in Computer-Supported Knowledge and Decision Tasks | | BIBAK | 243-262 | |
| Andrew Philippakis; Michael Goul | |||
| Decision groups have assumed new and expanded roles as a result of the
application of electronic technologies such as group DSS. The rational
selection and assignment of members to a computer-supported group is an
important research issue with significant implications for organizational
effectiveness. Formal group-composition models are developed for
knowledge-based and coalition-formation decision tasks. In the context of
these models, group properties of synthesis, redundancy, and synergy are
defined and related to concepts for rational selection of group members.
Conceptual and operational constructs are presented, providing a practical
foundation for initiating detailed analysis of interactions between
group-composition and group-decision processes. Implications for future
research are discussed. Keywords: Group membership, Models of group composition, Group knowledge tasks, Group
decisions | |||
| Empirical Research in Electronic Meeting Systems: A Demand Side Approach | | BIBAK | 263-275 | |
| Otto Petrovic | |||
| This study set out to empirically research the time spent by managers in
meetings and to identify the requirements of an information technology system
for supporting meetings. It does this by investigating the time commitment,
efficiency, main problems, and benefits of meetings. In addition, it examines
managers' attitudes towards information technology support for meetings. To
fulfill this aim, more than 1,000 mainly middle level managers were surveyed.
It emerges that a total of 22.4% of working time is spent in meetings; 34% of this time expenditure is rated inefficient. The opportunity for collective decision making and exchange of information are seen as the main benefits whereas the failure to identify critical items and agendas without priorities and targets are seen as the main problems. Analysis of their attitudes towards technological support of meetings shows that managers in principle have a positive attitude toward the idea. They specifically wish to see particular support for the preparatory and follow-up phases and tools to support qualitative-creative tasks. Keywords: Electronic meeting systems, Computer supported cooperative work, Group
decision support systems, Office automation, Groupware, Workgroup computing | |||
| Designing Communication Architectures for Interorganizational Multimedia Collaboration | | BIBAK | 277-302 | |
| Srinivas Ramanathan; P. Venkat Rangan; Harrick M. Vin | |||
| Advances in computer and communication technologies have stimulated the
integration of digital video and audio with computing, leading to the
development of various computer-assisted collaborations. In this article, we
propose a multilevel conferencing paradigm called super conference for
supporting collaborative interactions between geographically separated groups
of users, with each group belonging to possibly a different organization. In a
super conference, each participant must receive and display the composite media
stream obtained by mixing media streams transmitted by all the other
participants. Hierarchical communication architectures are naturally suited
for media mixing in super conferences. We present algorithms for designing
hierarchical mixing architectures that optimize real-time end-to-end delays of
media. In order to improve their real-time performance further, we propose
multistage mixing techniques by which mixers can carry out mixing concurrently
with communication. Surprisingly, the optimal architectures for multistage
mixing are widely different from those of monostage mixing (in which, mixing
and media communication sequential as opposed to concurrent). Based on
real-time delay constraints of multimedia, we obtain interesting limits on the
sizes of both super conferences and groups within super conferences in optimal
hierarchical architectures, which go to show their high scalability in terms of
both the maximum number of participants and the geographical separation between
them.
At the Multimedia Laboratory at the University of California, San Diego, we have implemented a conferencing system on an environment of Sun SPARCstations equipped with digital multimedia hardware. As an interesting application of the conferencing system, we have developed a telepresenter by which users can remotely attend lectures in progress. We present initial experiences with the system. Keywords: Interorganizational multimedia conferencing, Hierarchical communication
architectures, Monostage and multistage mixing | |||
| Systems for Finding People | | BIBAK | 303-314 | |
| Laurence Press | |||
| Finding a previously unknown person with the skills and knowledge to answer
a question or perhaps to collaborate with is an effective use of a
computer-mediated communication (CMC) system. This article discusses two
aspects of systems for finding people, system architectures, and organizational
implications.
The architectures considered are special interest groups, centralized servers, and decentralized systems. The organizational implications are the value to organizations of people-finding systems, management incentives for individuals to participate in them, and participation in the absence of apparent incentives. The deployment and improvement of people-finding and other CMC systems will bestow a marginal advantage upon cooperative individuals and organizations with cooperative cultures. As a result, CMC may marginally alter organizational and human nature, nudging us in the direction of a time when nice guys finish first. Keywords: Organizational culture, Participation, Collaboration, Computer-supported
cooperative work | |||
| Lotus Notes (Groupware) in Context | | BIBA | 315-320 | |
| Laurence Press | |||
| Notes is a mail and teleconferencing (bulletin board) system for LAN-based users at locations that are not continuously connected. It supports asynchronous group work in different locations, and has a direct-manipulation user interface. | |||
| Paralanguage and Social Perception in Computer-Mediated Communication | | BIBAK | 321-341 | |
| Martin Lea; Russell Spears | |||
| It is widely held that computer-mediated communication (CMC) filters out
many of the social and affective cues associated with human interaction with
consequent effects on communication outcomes and the medium's suitability for
interpersonal tasks. The relationship between paralanguage and social
perception in CMC in different social contexts is investigated in two
experiments. In Study 1, it was hypothesized that there would be significant
differences in subjects' perceptions of anonymous communicators as a function
of the paralinguistic content of the electronic mail messages they received.
Subjects read three sets of messages containing different types of
paralinguistic cues and a fourth set of control messages. They also completed
a set of person-perception rating scales in respect of each message sender.
The hypothesis was supported for both novice electronic mail users and for
experienced users drawn from a large telecommunications organization. In Study
2, subjects participated in group discussions over a CMCS under four
conditions, manipulated in a 2 x 2 between-subjects design. The salience of
the task group was either high or low, and subjects were either de-individuated
(physically isolated and visually anonymous) or individuated (physically
copresent and visually identifiable). From social identity theory, it was
hypothesized that de-individuated subjects for whom group identity had been
made salient would evaluate users of paralanguage more positively than when
group salience was low, in accordance with a social attraction response
associated with perceptions of group identity. The hypothesis was supported.
The results suggest that paralanguage is one means by which social information
is communicated in CMC and that the meaning of paralinguistic marks is
dependent on the group or individual context that is pre-established for the
communication. The studies, therefore, question earlier assumptions that the
social context is dramatically reduced or eliminated in this medium. The
implications of contextual effects for the use of CMC by work groups in
organizations are discussed. Keywords: Computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW), Computer-mediated communication
(CMC), De-individuation, Impression formation, Paralanguage, Social cues,
Person perception, Social identity | |||