An EEG-based Approach for Evaluating Graphic Icons from the Perspective of
Semantic Distance
How Does It Look? Evaluating Visual Design
/
Cherng, Fu-Yin
/
Lin, Wen-Chieh
/
King, Jung-Tai
/
Lee, Yi-Chen
Proceedings of the ACM CHI'16 Conference on Human Factors in Computing
Systems
2016-05-07
v.1
p.4378-4389
© Copyright 2016 ACM
Summary: Graphic icons play an increasingly important role in interface design due to
the proliferation of digital devices in recent years. Their ability to express
information in a universal fashion allows us to immediately interact with new
applications, systems, and devices. Icons can, however, cause user confusion
and frustration if designed poorly. Several studies have evaluated icons using
behavioral-performance metrics such as reaction time as well as self-report
methods. However, determining the usability of icons based on behavioral
measures alone is not straightforward, because users' interpretations of the
meaning of icons involve various cognitive processes and perceptual mechanisms.
Moreover, these perceptual mechanisms are affected not only by the icons
themselves, but by usage scenarios. Thus, we need a means of sensitively and
continuously measuring users' different cognitive processes when they are
interacting with icons. In this study, we propose an EEG-based approach to icon
evaluation, in which users' EEG signals are measured in multiple usage
scenarios. Based on a combination of EEG and behavioral results, we provide a
novel interpretation of the participants' perception during these tasks, and
identify some important implications for icon design.
Bridging the Gap between Privacy by Design and Privacy in Practice
Workshop Summaries
/
Stark, Luke
/
King, Jen
/
Page, Xinru
/
Lampinen, Airi
/
Vitak, Jessica
/
Wisniewski, Pamela
/
Whalen, Tara
/
Good, Nathaniel
Extended Abstracts of the ACM CHI'16 Conference on Human Factors in
Computing Systems
2016-05-07
v.2
p.3415-3422
© Copyright 2016 ACM
Summary: While there has been considerable academic work over the past decade on
preserving and enhancing digital privacy, little of this scholarship has
influenced practitioners in design or industry. By bringing together leading
privacy academics and commercial stakeholders, this workshop builds on previous
gatherings at ACM conferences and in the broader privacy community. Workshop
attendees will address the 'privacy by design' implementation problem, and will
work together to identify actionable methods and design heuristics for closing
the gap between academic research and industry solutions for protecting user
privacy in the design of systems, digital products and services.
Using Time-Anchored Peer Comments to Enhance Social Interaction in Online
Educational Videos
Understand & Enhancing Learning
/
Lee, Yi-Chieh
/
Lin, Wen-Chieh
/
Cherng, Fu-Yin
/
Wang, Hao-Chuan
/
Sung, Ching-Ying
/
King, Jung-Tai
Proceedings of the ACM CHI'15 Conference on Human Factors in Computing
Systems
2015-04-18
v.1
p.689-698
© Copyright 2015 ACM
Summary: Online learning is increasingly prevalent as an option for self-learning and
as a resource for instructional design. Prerecorded video is currently the main
medium of online education content delivery and instruction; this affords
asynchronicity and flexibility, and enables the dissemination of lecture
content in a distributed and scalable manner. However, the same properties may
impede learners' engagement due to the lack of social interaction and peer
support. In this paper, we propose a time-anchored commenting interface to
allow online learners who watch the same video clips to exchange comments on
them. Comments left by previous learners at specific time points of a video are
displayed to new learners when they watch the same video and reach those time
points. We investigated how the display of time-anchored comments (dynamic or
static) and type of comments (content-related or social-oriented) influenced
users' perceived engagement, perceived social interactivity, and learning
outcomes. Our results show that dynamically displaying time-anchored comments
can indeed enhance learners' perceived social interactivity. Moreover, the
content of comments would further affect learners' intention of commenting.
Based on our findings, we make various recommendations for the improvement of
social interaction and learning experience in online education.
Generating Music Playlists with Hierarchical Clustering and Q-Learning
Recommender Systems
/
King, James
/
Imbrasaitié, Vaiva
Proceedings of ECIR 2015, the 2015 European Conference on Information
Retrieval
2015-03-29
p.315-326
Keywords: Music playlist generation; reinforcement learning; hierarchical clustering;
user study
© Copyright 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
Summary: Automatically generating playlists of music is an interesting area of
research at present, with many online services now offering "radio channels"
which attempt to play through sets of tracks a user is likely to enjoy.
However, these tend to act as recommendation services, introducing a user to
new music they might wish to listen to. Far less effort has gone into
researching tools which learn an individual user's tastes across their existing
library of music and attempt to produce playlists fitting to their current
mood. This paper describes a system that uses reinforcement learning over
hierarchically-clustered sets of songs to learn a user's listening preferences.
Features extracted from the audio are also used as part of this process,
allowing the software to create cohesive lists of tracks on demand or to simply
play continuously from a given starting track. This new system is shown to
perform well in a small user study, greatly reducing the relative number of
songs that a user skips.
A Design-led Research Approach to Contextual Evaluation of
Socio-psychological Factors in the Development of Telehealth Devices
Health and Rehabilitation Applications
/
Mieczakowski, Anna
/
King, James
/
Fehnert, Ben
UAHCI 2014: 8th International Conference on Universal Access in
Human-Computer Interaction, Part III: Aging and Assistive Environments
2014-06-22
v.3
p.321-332
Keywords: Medical Devices; User Experience; Design-led Research Process; Contextual
Inquiry; Socio-psychological Contextual Factors; Telehealth
© Copyright 2014 Springer International Publishing
Summary: Well-designed medical devices that embrace the socio-psychological needs of
patients lead to increased customer acceptance, sustained use, improved safety
and cost-effectiveness for both the professional and lay users. This paper
proposes a new iterative design-led research approach for collecting and
evaluating socio-psychological contextual user experience of patients and care
providers in the telehealth development process. This approach, which has been
applied to a multi-country development of a medical device, is based around the
usage of a telehealth prototype from early stages of the design process. This
allows for 'mini' elements of all design stages to be addressed in each
individual stage to ensure the capture of contextual data from users about
usage patterns, feelings and impact on the patient-clinician care relationship.
An EEG-based approach for evaluating audio notifications under ambient
sounds
Brain computer interfaces
/
Lee, Yi-Chieh
/
Lin, Wen-Chieh
/
King, Jung-Tai
/
Ko, Li-Wei
/
Huang, Yu-Ting
/
Cherng, Fu-Yin
Proceedings of ACM CHI 2014 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
2014-04-26
v.1
p.3817-3826
© Copyright 2014 ACM
Summary: Audio notifications are an important means of prompting users of electronic
products. Although useful in most environments, audio notifications are
ineffective in certain situations, especially against particular auditory
backgrounds or when the user is distracted. Several studies have used
behavioral performance to evaluate audio notifications, but these studies
failed to achieve consistent results due to factors including user subjectivity
and environmental differences; thus, a new method and more objective indicators
are necessary. In this study, we propose an approach based on
electroencephalography (EEG) to evaluate audio notifications by measuring
users' auditory perceptual responses (mismatch negativity) and attention
shifting (P3a). We demonstrate our approach by applying it to the usability
testing of audio notifications in realistic scenarios, such as users performing
a major task amid ambient noises. Our results open a new perspective for
evaluating the design of the audio notifications.
When it's better to ask forgiveness than get permission: attribution
mechanisms for smartphone resources
Authentication and authorization
/
Thompson, Christopher
/
Johnson, Maritza
/
Egelman, Serge
/
Wagner, David
/
King, Jennifer
Proceedings of the 2013 Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security
2013-07-24
p.1
© Copyright 2013 ACM
Summary: Smartphone applications pose interesting security problems because the same
resources they use to enhance the user experience may also be used in ways that
users might find objectionable. We performed a set of experiments to study
whether attribution mechanisms could help users understand how smartphone
applications access device resources. First, we performed an online survey and
found that, as attribution mechanisms have become available on the Android
platform, users notice and use them. Second, we designed new attribution
mechanisms; a qualitative experiment suggested that our proposed mechanisms are
intuitive to understand. Finally, we performed a laboratory experiment in which
we simulated application misbehaviors to observe whether users equipped with
our attribution mechanisms were able to identify the offending applications.
Our results show that, for users who notice application misbehaviors, these
attribution mechanisms are significantly more effective than the status quo.
Privacy: is there an app for that?
Privacy on social network sites
/
King, Jennifer
/
Lampinen, Airi
/
Smolen, Alex
Proceedings of the 2011 Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security
2011-07-20
p.12
© Copyright 2011 ACM
Summary: Users of social networking sites (SNSs) increasingly must learn to negotiate
privacy online with multiple service providers. Facebook's third-party
applications (apps) add an additional layer of complexity and confusion for
users seeking to understand and manage their privacy. We conducted a novel
exploratory survey (conducted on Facebook as a Platform app) to measure how
Facebook app users interact with apps, what they understand about how apps
access and exchange their profile information, and how these factors relate to
their privacy concerns. In our analysis, we paid special attention to our most
knowledgeable respondents: given their expertise, would they differ in
behaviors or attitudes from less knowledgeable respondents? We found that
misunderstandings and confusion abound about how apps function and how they
manage profile data. Against our expectations, knowledge or behavior weren't
consistent predictors of privacy concerns with third-party apps or on SNSs in
general. Instead, whether or not the respondent experienced an adverse privacy
event on a social networking site was a reliable predictor of privacy
attitudes.
Project SAGE, a half-century on
Forum: Timelines
/
King, John Leslie
interactions
2010-09
v.17
n.5
p.53-55
Keywords: HCI History
© Copyright 2010 ACM
Summary: John Leslie King's interest in history was evident at the first CSCW
conference in 1986. His review of 15 years of research with technology to
support real-time collocated interaction, then called Group Decision Support
Systems, revealed that we sometimes learn more slowly from experience than we
could. In this article, he describes the little-known system that pioneered
real-time human-computer interaction in the 1950s, created the computing
profession, and trained hundreds of its earliest practitioners. -- Jonathan
Grudin
Security user studies: methodologies and best practices
Workshops
/
Egelman, Serge
/
King, Jennifer
/
Miller, Robert C.
/
Ragouzis, Nick
/
Shehan, Erika
Proceedings of ACM CHI 2007 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
2007-04-28
v.2
p.2833-2836
© Copyright 2007 ACM
Summary: Interest in usable security -- the research, development, and study of
systems that are both usable and secure -- has been growing both in the CHI and
information security communities in the past several years. Despite this
interest, however, the process of designing and conducting security-related
user studies remains extremely difficult. Users deal with security infrequently
and irregularly, and most do not notice or care about security until it is
missing or broken. Security is rarely a primary goal or task of users, making
many traditional HCI evaluation techniques difficult or even impossible to use.
This workshop will bring together researchers and practitioners from the HCI
and information security communities to explore methodological challenges and
best practices for conducting security-related user studies.
Going critical: Perspective and proportion in the epistemology of Rob Kling
/
King, John L.
/
Iacono, S.
/
Grudin, Jonathan
The Information Society
2007
v.23
n.4
p.251-26
Keywords: critical perspective, social informatics
Summary: One foundational element of Rob Kling's body of research and writing is its
critical perspective on the nature, role and dynamics of computerization. His
main argument was that one should view as dubious any statements that are not
grounded in empirical evidence or theoretical analysis, particularly when the
implications appear to benefit those making the statements, such as vendors,
the public press, and government officials. Rob's work was replete with
successful instances of critical refutation, in which he challenged assumptions
or statements about computerization and provided convincing alternative
interpretations. Much of his work delivered powerful indictments against sloppy
conjecture and hyperbolic statements that claimed either utopian or dystopian
outcomes from computerization. At the same time, some of his own assessments of
the implications of emerging technologies tended to be dismissive and
marginalizing, revealing in his own thinking some of the weaknesses he relished
in pointing out in others' rhetoric and writing. This paper identifies
intellectual traps inherent in critical perspectives that can catch even the
most acute practitioners. The objective is to help elucidate and stabilize the
epistemological foundations for Rob's critical perspective on the role of
computerization.
Modern Information Infrastructure in the Support of Distributed Collective
Practice in Transport
/
King, John Leslie
Computer Supported Cooperative Work
2006
v.15
n.2/3
p.111-121
Keywords: communications; distributed collective practice; information infrastructure;
transportation; terrorism
© Copyright 2006 Springer
Summary: Transport is one of the oldest and most important forms of distributed
collective practice. This paper traces the role of information and
communication technologies in the transformation of transport-based distributed
collective practice, focusing on the evolution of technologies that place
control of the transport infrastructure in the hands of end users. Examples of
this shift are provided, including an analysis of the events of September 11,
2001 as forms of distributed collective action.
A format design case study: PDF
Keynote
/
King, James C.
Proceedings of the Fifteenth ACM Conference on Hypertext
2004-08-09
p.95-97
© Copyright 2004 ACM
Summary: We explain how the Portable Document Format was designed based upon some
specific design criteria that were developed to make an advance beyond previous
technology. The environmental variables (computing power, business climate)
that affected the design are also discussed.
A Tool for Performing and Analysing Experiments on Graphical Communication
CSCW
/
Healey, P. G. T.
/
Swoboda, N.
/
King, J.
Proceedings of the HCI'02 Conference on People and Computers XVI
2002-09-02
p.55-68
© Copyright 2002 Springer
An investigation of computer anxiety by gender and grade
/
King, John
/
Bond, Trevor
/
Blandford, Sonya
Computers in Human Behavior
2002-01
v.18
n.1
p.69-84
© Copyright 2002 Elsevier Ltd.
EDITED BOOK
Culture of the Internet
/
Kiesler, Sara
1997
p.480
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Part I: The Net As It Was and Might Become
The Rise and Fall of Netville: The Saga of a Cyberspace Construction Boomtown in the Great Divide
+ King, J.
+ Grinter, R. E.
+ Pickering, J. M.
Atheism, Sex, and Databases: The Net as a Social Technology
+ Sproull, L.
+ Faraj, S.
Pornography in Cyberspace: An Exploration of What's in USENET
+ Mehta, M. D.
+ Plaza, D. E.
BOX: Erotica on the Internet: Early Evidence From the HomeNet Trial
+ Manning, J.
+ Scherlis, W.
+ Kiesler, S.
+ Kraut, R.
+ Mukhopadhyay, T.
From the Couch to the Keyboard: Psychotherapy in Cyberspace
+ Binik, Y. M.
+ Cantor, J.
+ Ochs, E.
+ Meana, M.
Part II: Electronic Groups
Interpreting Soap Operas and Creating Community: Inside an Electronic Fan Culture
+ Baym, N. K.
Mudding: Social Phenomena in Text-Based Virtual Realities
+ Curtis, P.
Constructions and Reconstructions of Self in Virtual Reality: Playing in the MUDs
+ Turkle, S.
Seeking Social Support: Parents in Electronic Support Group
+ Mickelson, K. D.
An Electronic Group Is Virtually a Social Network
+ Wellman, B.
Part III: Power and Influence
A Brave New World or a New World Order?
+ Kedzie, C. R.
Conflict on the Internet
+ Carnevale, P. J.
+ Probst, T. M.
BOX: Coordination, Control, and the Intranet
+ Kling, R.
Part IV: Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
Electronic Brainstorming: Science Meets Technology in the Group Meeting Room
+ Connolly, T.
Email Overload: Exploring Personal Information Management of Email
+ Whittaker, S.
+ Sidner, C.
BOX: More That We Can Know: The Attentional Economics of Internet Use
+ Thorngate, W.
Part V: Networked Organizations
The Kindness of Strangers: On the Usefulness of Electronic Weak Ties for Technical Advice
+ Constant, D.
+ Sproull, L.
+ Kiesler, S.
Media Use in a Global Corporation: Electronic Mail and Organizational Knowledge
+ Kraut, R. E.
+ Attewell, P.
Organizational Dimensions of Effective Digital Library Use: Closed Rational and Open Natural Systems Models
+ Covi, L.
+ Kling, R.
The Internet in School: A Case Study of Educator Demand and Its Precursors
+ Schofield, J. W.
+ Davidson, A.
+ Stocks, J. E.
+ Futoran, G.
Part VI: Differences in Access and Usage
Computer Networks and Scientific Work
+ Walsh, J. P.
+ Bayma, T.
Computers and Connectivity: Current Trends
+ Bikson, T. K.
+ Panis, C. W. A.
REPORT
/
National Research Council
More than Screen Deep:
Toward Every-Citizen Interfaces to the
Nation's Information Infrastructure
1996
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
PART I
1 Introduction
2 Requirements for Effective Every-Citizen Interfaces
3 Input/Output Technologies: Current Status and Research Needs
4 Design and Evaluation
5 Communication and Collaboration
6 Agents and Systems Intelligence
7 Conclusions and Recommendations
Bibliography
PART II
BACKGROUND PAPER
Trends in Human-Computer Interaction Research and Development
+ Hartson, H. Rex
POSITION PAPERS
On Interface Specifics
An Embedded, Invisible Every-Citizen Interface
+ Weiser, Mark
Intelligent Multimedia Interfaces for "Each" Citizen
+ Maybury, Mark T.
Interfaces for Understanding
+ Shedroff, Nathan
Interspace and an Every-Citizen Interface to the National Information Infrastructure
+ Winograd, Terry
Mobile Access to the Nation's Information Infrastructure
+ Siewiorek, Daniel P.
Ordinary Citizens and the National Information Infrastructure
+ Tognazzini, Bruce
Spoken-Language Technology
+ Cole, Ronald A.
Toward an Every-Citizen Interface
+ Feiner, Steven K.
Nomadicity, Disability Access, and the Every-Citizen Interface
+ Vanderheiden, Gregg C.
On Functions
Computer-Mediated Collaboration
+ Terveen, Loren
Creating Interfaces Founded on Principles of Discourse Communication and Collaboration
+ Sidner, Candace
Digital Maps
+ McKee, Lance
+ Hecht, Louis
Gathering and Integrating Information in the National Information Infrastructure
+ Knoblock, Craig A.
Integrating Audiences and Users
+ Richards, John
Intelligent Agents for Information
+ Sycara, Katia P.
Intelligent Information Agents
+ Moore, Johanna D.
Resource Discovery and Resource Delivery
+ Wittenburg, Kent
Search and Publishing
+ Virzi, Robert A.
Security
+ Kent, Stephen
Research to Support Widespread Access to Digital Libraries and Government Information and Services
+ Shneiderman, Ben
On Application Areas
Community Computing Projects
+ Namioka, Aki Helen
Lifelong Learning
+ Fischer, Gerhard
Supporting Learning in Communities of Practice
+ Cleary, Charles
On Selected Population Groups
Extending Knowledge Access to Underserved Citizens
+ Feurzeig, Wallace
Electronic Access to Services for Low-Income Populations
+ Porter, Adam
Access for People with Disabilities
+ Goldberg, Larry
On Key Processes
Cross-Disciplinary, Social-Context Research
+ King, John Leslie
Audio Access to the National Information Infrastructure
+ Thomas, John C.
SimLanguage
/
King, John Leslie
Computer Supported Cooperative Work
1994
v.3
n.1
p.51-54
© Copyright 1994 Kluwer Academic Publishers
Problem or Solution? CSCW and the Paradox of Stalled Productivity
Panels
/
Kiesler, Sara
/
Attewell, Paul
/
King, John
/
Morris, James
Proceedings of ACM CSCW'92 Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
1992-10-31
p.16
© Copyright 1992 Association for Computing Machinery
Summary: In 20th century dreams and nightmares of computing, computers build cars and
win battles, and robots take jobs. According to research, the reality is both
mundane and paradoxical. Whereas computers can process information faster and
better than ever before, the productivity payoffs for organizations have
(apparently) been negligible or worse. Some experts even fault computers that
"help" people work together. (If people are busy talking, they don't get their
real work done, according to this argument.) Others claim we haven't built the
right CSCW technologies -- those that will link individual workers and
information to organizational needs.
In this panel we look at evidence for the paradox and reasons it may exist.
Then we air different views of how to think about CSCW and organizational
productivity. And we suggest how design might be targeted at productivity.
Hardwiring Weak Ties: Individual and Institutional Issues in Computer
Mediated Communication
Organizational Influences on CSCW Success
/
Pickering, Jeanne M.
/
King, John Leslie
Proceedings of ACM CSCW'92 Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
1992-10-31
p.356-361
Keywords: Computer-mediated communication, Organizational issues, Weak ties
© Copyright 1992 Association for Computing Machinery
Summary: Recent accounts of computer-mediated communication (CMC) systems in
organizations are mixed about the success of CMC. While some organizations
eagerly embrace CMC systems for their employees, and support systems with
thousands of users and multiple uses, other organizations have refused their
employees access to CMC systems, or removed such systems after they have become
established in use. Why the wide disparity in organizational support of CMC?
We show the importance of differences in institutional dependencies on CMC
support of individuals' "weak-tie" relationships for explaining differences in
willingness to support CMC infrastructure. We then examine the downstream
implications of maintenance of weak ties via CMC infrastructure for individuals
and institutions.
Computer Support for Work Across Space, Time, and Social Worlds
/
Ruhleder, Karen
/
King, John Leslie
Journal of Organizational Computing
1991
v.1
n.4
p.341-355
Keywords: Computer-supported collaborative work
© Copyright 1991 Ablex Publishing
Summary: Collaboration is at the heart of academic enterprise; proposals for systems
such as the National Science Foundation's "National Collaboratory" or Apple
Computer's "Knowledge Navigator" seek to support these collaborative efforts by
means of a variety of computing technologies. We examine the assumptions of
the model of collaborative work behind such proposals and suggest ways to
extend that model. We draw on a case study of collaborative efforts in
classical scholarship in order to explore more fully the existing modalities of
academic collaboration as it actually occurs. The development of a broader
understanding of collaborative activities will enable us to address more
effectively the challenge of constructings systems to support collaborative
work.
Case-Based Reasoning: Taming the Similarity Heuristic
Computer Systems: Knowledge Acquisition/Expert Systems
/
Whitaker, Leslie A.
/
Stottler, Richard H.
/
Henke, Andrea
/
King, James A.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting
1990-10-08
v.1
p.312-315
© Copyright 1990 Human Factors Society
Summary: Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) is a methodology for employing imprecise data and
uncertain information in the development of solutions to fuzzy real world
problems. It is seen as an alternative to rule-based systems, which may fail
under these conditions. Under the sponsorship of DARPA, we have developed a
generic CBR shell.
The system was evaluated in the domain of NACA airfoils. A subject matter
expert was asked to select airfoils (cases) which were similar to target
airfoils. He then defined attributes and weights by which he had judged this
similarity. These parameters were then used by PROSPER in a retrieval of
airfoils similar to the same targets. From a case base of 98 airfoils, PROSPER
retrieved 9 out of 17 selected by the expert. After modifying the similarity
algorithms, PROSPER retrieved 11 out of 17.
Computer-based systems for cooperative work and group decisionmaking: status
of use and problems in development
IX -- coordination and decision making
/
Kraemer, Kenneth L.
/
King, John Leslie
Proceedings of ACM CSCW'86 Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
1986-12-03
p.353-375
© Copyright 1986 ACM
Summary: Application of computer and information technology to cooperative work and
group decisionmaking has grown out of three traditions: computer-based
communications, computer-based information service provision, and
computer-based decision support. This paper provides an overview of the various
kinds of systems that have been configured to meet the needs of groups at work,
evaluates the status of these systems in the United States, evaluates the
experience with them, assesses barriers to their further development and use,
and draws conclusions about future work in this area that should be undertaken.
An extensive set of references is provided.
Computer Acquisition of Natural Language: A Review and Prospectus
/
McMaster, I.
/
Sampson, J. R.
/
King, J. E.
International Journal of Man-Machine Studies
1976
v.8
n.4
p.367-396
© Copyright 1976 Academic Press
Summary: A computer program which could learn to converse in natural language, in a
fashion analogous to the child's acquisition of his mother tongue, would
benefit theories of language acquisition and efforts toward mechanical language
understanding. This paper opens with a sketch of the acquisition process as
presently understood by linguists, and a discussion of models and methods.
The "state of the art" in computer acquisition of natural language is then
considered, in a critical review of four computer oriented natural language
systems (Schwarcz, 1967; Kelley, 1967; Harris, 1972; Block et al., 1975) with
important acquisition components
Based in large part on what has been learned from these previous efforts, a
new Comprehensive Language Acquisition Program (CLAP) is proposed. The heart
of CLAP is the development of its parsing and related components through the
sequential activation of five strategies: segmentation and meaning association,
linear ordering, structural generalization, conflict resolution, and using
discourse. The first three of these strategies are sufficiently well defined
for computer implementation, using established methodologies from artificial
intelligence.
