%M C.CHI.94.1.3
%T Scandinavian Design: Users in Product Development
%S Design in the Workplace
%A Kyng, Morten
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 3-9
%K Cooperative design, Participatory design, Product development, Computer
supported cooperative work
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p3-kyng/p3-kyng.pdf
%X This paper presents an approach to user involvement in product development
that has grown out of a Scandinavian tradition for cooperation with end-users
in design.  This tradition emphasizes early and continuing end-user
involvement, and has over the last decade been applied successfully in several
projects.  Most of these projects have, however, been research projects or of
the type in-house or contract development, and the claim is often made that
this way of involving users is not suited for product development.  In this
paper I sketch the ideas behind involving users in the design process, and then
present and discuss a case of product development in the CSCW area, where more
traditional development activities were integrated with intensive cooperation
with end-users.

%M C.CHI.94.1.10
%T Designing Workscape: An Interdisciplinary Experience
%S Design in the Workplace
%A Ballay, Joseph M.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 10-15
%K Design, Documents, Interdisciplinary
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p10-ballay/p10-ballay.pdf
%X Workscape is a clean-slate design for an office document management product.
It was developed through a unique collaboration among the staffs of Digital and
MAYA.  From earliest concepts to current refinements and productization,
Workscape has benefited from interdisciplinary design methods involving
specialists from the fields of human factors, computer science, and visual
design.  Extensive use of mockups, in a variety of media, proved particularly
effective in bridging differences of terminology and methodology between these
three disciplines.

%M C.CHI.94.1.16
%T An Improved Interface for Tutorial Dialogues: Browsing a Visual Dialogue
History
%S Accessing and Exploring Information
%A Lemaire, Benoit
%A Moore, Johanna
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 16-22
%K Tutorial interactions, Dialogue history, Information visualization
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p16-lemaire/p16-lemaire.pdf
%X When participating in tutorial dialogues, human tutors freely refer to their
own previous explanations.  Explanation is an inherently incremental and
interactive process.  New information must be highlighted and related to what
has already been presented.  If user interfaces are to reap the benefits of
natural language interaction, they must be endowed with the properties that
make human natural language interaction so effective.  This paper describes the
design of a user interface that enables both the system and the user to refer
to the past dialogue.  The work is based on the notion that the dialogue
history is a source of knowledge that can be manipulated like any other.  In
particular, we describe an interface that allows students to visualize the
dialogue history on the screen, highlight its relevant parts and query and
manipulate the dialogue history.  We expect that these facilities will increase
the effectiveness of the student learning of the tasks.

%M C.CHI.94.1.23
%T Using Aggregation and Dynamic Queries for Exploring Large Data Sets
%S Accessing and Exploring Information
%A Goldstein, Jade
%A Roth, Steven F.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 23-29
%K Interactive techniques, Data exploration, Data visualization, Large data
sets, Graphics presentation, Intelligent interfaces
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p23-goldstein/p23-goldstein.pdf
%X When working with large data sets, users perform three primary types of
activities: data manipulation, data analysis, and data visualization.  The data
manipulation process involves the selection and transformation of data prior to
viewing.  This paper addresses user goals for this process and the interactive
interface mechanisms that support them.  We consider three classes of data
manipulation goals: controlling the scope (selecting the desired portion of the
data), selecting the focus of attention (concentrating on the attributes of
data that are relevant to current analysis), and choosing the level of detail
(creating and decomposing aggregates of data).  We use this classification to
evaluate the functionality of existing data exploration interface techniques. 
Based on these results, we have expanded an interface mechanism called the
Aggregate Manipulator (AM) and combined it with Dynamic Query (DQ) to provide
complete coverage of the data manipulation goals.  We use real estate sales
data to demonstrate how the AM and DQ synergistically function in our
interface.

%M C.CHI.94.1.30
%T An Image Retrieval System Considering Subjective Perception
%S Accessing and Exploring Information
%A Nishiyama, Haruhiko
%A Kin, Sumi
%A Yokoyama, Teruo
%A Matsushita, Yutaka
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 30-36
%K Image database, Subjective perception, Graphical user interface, Spatial
relationship, Image expression model, Visual language
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p30-nishiyama/p30-nishiyama.pdf
%X Human interface plays an important role in information retrieval system. 
Visual information is a good man-machine communication medium.  Therefore, it
is necessary to design a visual interface to interpret the pictorial
information.  Such a visual interface provides user-friendly operations.  It is
important to design advanced image database systems from a visual aspect.  The
algorithms of image retrieval operations have to suit user's subjective
viewpoint, such as a similarity measure, etc.
   This paper proposes an image retrieval scheme based on the assumption that
end-users make use of image database systems.  When a human being looks
graphical materials like artistic paintings, he/she memorizes them using two
patterns in his/her visual memory: the first pattern is that of looking roughly
the whole image, the second is that of paying attention to specific objects
such as a man or a desk.
   A user can divide the canvas into several area with appropriate color freely
and put icons for representing objects.  Moreover, the user can set detailed
attributes of each object in order to reduce the number of candidates.  Thus,
by means of specifying the feature of a picture in the three levels (area,
objects, attributes), an image retrieval system suited for humans' sense can be
realized.

%M C.CHI.94.1.37
%T Montage: Providing Teleproximity for Distributed Groups
%S Supporting Distributed Work
%A Tang, John C.
%A Rua, Monica
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 37-43
%K Awareness, Remote collaboration, Media spaces, Video, Computer-supported
cooperative work
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p37-tang/p37-tang.pdf
%X Montage is a research prototype that explores using video to help
collaborators find opportune times to interact with each other.  Physical
proximity with colleagues affords walking down hallways and peeking into
offices in order to find a good time to contact someone.  By helping members of
distributed work groups more naturally find opportunities to interact with each
other, Montage aims to provide a sense of teleproximity.  Montage uses
momentary, reciprocal glances among networked workstations to make it easy to
peek into someone's office.  From a Montage glance, users can quickly start a
full-featured desktop video conference.  If the glance shows that the person is
not in her office, Montage provides quick access to browse her on-line
calendar, send her e-mail, or send her an electronic note that pops up on her
screen.  Preliminary usage data show that users had short, lightweight
interactions through Montage, although most glances did not result in an
interactive communication.

%M C.CHI.94.1.44
%T Courtyard: Integrating Shared Overview on a Large Screen and Per-User Detail
on Individual Screens
%S Supporting Distributed Work
%A Tani, Masayuki
%A Horita, Masato
%A Yamaashi, Kimiya
%A Tanikoshi, Koichiro
%A Futakawa, Masayasu
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 44-50
%K Computer-supported cooperative work, Shared large display, Per-user detail
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p44-tani/p44-tani.pdf
%X The operation of complex real-world systems, such as industrial plants,
requires that multiple users cooperate in monitoring and controlling large
amounts of information to supervise complex processes.  The Courtyard system
supports such cooperative work by integrating an overview on a shared large
screen and detail on individual screens.  This integration is realized by two
approaches: (1) providing an implicit way of transferring mouse and keyboard
control between the shared and individual screens, and (2) supporting
association between the overview on the shared screen and per-user detail on
individual screens.  Courtyard allows a user to move a mouse pointer between
the shared and individual screens as though they were contiguous, and to access
per-user detailed information on the user's individual screen simply by
pointing to an object on the shared screen.  Courtyard selects the detailed
information according to the tasks assigned to the pointing user under a
division of labor.  The former approach results in an interface that is as
simple, intuitive and consistent to use as that for a single screen.  The
latter enables a user to retrieve easily and quickly detailed information
needed for performing the assigned tasks without being distracted by
information for others.

%M C.CHI.94.1.51
%T Distributed Collaborative Writing: A Comparison of Spoken and Written
Modalities for Reviewing and Revising Documents
%S Supporting Distributed Work
%A Neuwirth, Christine M.
%A Chandhok, Ravinder
%A Charney, Davida
%A Wojahn, Patricia
%A Kim, Loel
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 51-57
%K Computer-supported cooperative work, Collaborative writing, Annotations,
Voice
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p51-neuwirth/p51-neuwirth.pdf
%X Previous research indicates that voice annotation helps reviewers to express
the more complex and social aspects of a collaborative writing task.  Little
direct evidence exists, however, about the effect of voice annotations on the
writers who must use such annotations.  To test the effect, we designed an
interface intended to alleviate some of the problems associated with the voice
modality and undertook a study with two goals: to compare the nature and
quantity of voice and written comments, and to evaluate how writers responded
to comments produced in each mode.  Writers were paired with reviewers who made
either written or spoken annotations from which the writers revised.  The study
provides direct evidence that the greater expressivity of the voice modality,
which previous research suggested benefits reviewers, produces annotations that
writers also find usable.  Interactions of modality with the type of annotation
suggest specific advantages of each mode for enhancing the processes of review
and revision.

%M C.CHI.94.1.58
%T Marquee: A Tool for Real-Time Video Logging
%S Multimedia in Use
%A Weber, Karon
%A Poon, Alex
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 58-64
%K Video indexing, Video annotation, Gestural interfaces, Pen-based computing,
User interfaces, User studies, Multimedia
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p58-weber/p58-weber.pdf
%X We describe Marquee, a pen-based video logging tool which enables users to
correlate their personal notes and keywords with a videotape during recording.
We present our observations about coordinating the task of logging in real time
and describe the three phase, user-centered approach we took in designing the
tool.  Our early work explored the functionalities needed by users to
successfully create a log.  In the second phase we focused on testing our
intuitions about logging by conducting user studies with paper mock-ups.  In
the final phase, we implemented a working prototype system and placed it in a
setting to see if it supported people logging in real time.

%M C.CHI.94.1.65
%T A Comparison of the Use of Text and Multimedia Interfaces to Provide
Information to the Elderly
%S Multimedia in Use
%A Ogozalek, Virginia Z.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 65-71
%K Multimedia, Elderly users, Health care, Information search and retrieval,
Interactive video, User interface, Aging, User study, Computers and medicine
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p65-ogozalek/p65-ogozalek.pdf
%X This report describes an experiment in which 64 elderly participants,
average age 71, used (1) a text-only or (2) a multimedia computer interface to
obtain information -- in this case, about prescription drugs.  The
participants, none of whom had used a computer before, compared the
computerized information systems to a more traditional "interface" of words
printed on paper.  Results indicate that, for this group of elders, who were
recruited from a seniors' group at a college, a multimedia presentation was
better than a text-only screen or a printed leaflet, on both performance and
preference measures.  Difficulty with reading due to vision problems associated
with aging was the most commonly cited reason for preferring the multimedia
system.  While men preferred both computer interfaces to the leaflet, women
liked only the multimedia system and expressed very negative feelings about the
text-only interface.

%M C.CHI.94.1.72
%T Computers are Social Actors
%S Expressive Interfaces
%A Nass, Clifford
%A Steuer, Jonathan
%A Tauber, Ellen R.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 72-78
%K Anthropomorphism, Agents, Voice, Speech, Social psychology, Gender, Design
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p72-nass/p72-nass.pdf
%X This paper presents a new experimental paradigm for the study of
human-computer interaction.  Five experiments provide evidence that
individuals' interactions with computers are fundamentally social.  The studies
show that social responses to computers are not the result of conscious beliefs
that computers are human or human-like.  Moreover, such behaviors do not result
from users' ignorance or from psychological or social dysfunctions, nor from a
belief that subjects are interacting with programmers.  Rather, social
responses to computers are commonplace and easy to generate.  The results
reported here present numerous and unprecedented hypotheses, unexpected
implications for design, new approaches to usability testing, and direct
methods for verification.

%M C.CHI.94.1.79
%T Form-Giving: Expressing the Nonobvious
%S Expressive Interfaces
%A Smets, Gerda
%A Overbeeke, Kees
%A Gaver, William
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 79-84
%K Interface design, Visualization, Form-giving, Affordances, Ecological
approaches
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p79-smets/p79-smets.pdf
%X The design of richly informative interfaces would benefit from an account of
how visual forms convey information.  In this paper we suggest that the study
of form-giving in Industrial Engineering might provide a foundation for such an
account.  We present three studies of designed synesthesia, in which objects'
forms indicate non-visible attributes such as taste or smell.  These studies
illustrate the rich possibilities for conveying information with form,
possibilities which are routinely exploited in industrial design.  We believe
that similar opportunities exist for interface design, and that further studies
of form-giving may help in taking advantage of them.  Results of a student
exercise expressing computer metaphors in 3D forms will be discussed.

%M C.CHI.94.1.85
%T Using a Human Face in an Interface
%S Expressive Interfaces
%A Walker, Janet H.
%A Sproull, Lee
%A Subramani, R.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 85-91
%K User interface design, Multimodal interfaces, Anthropomorphism, Facial
expression, Facial animation, Personable computers
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p85-walker/p85-walker.pdf
%X We investigated subjects' responses to a synthesized talking face displayed
on a computer screen in the context of a questionnaire study.  Compared to
subjects who answered questions presented via text display on a screen,
subjects who answered the same questions spoken by a talking face spent more
time, made fewer mistakes, and wrote more comments.  When we compared responses
to two different talking faces, subjects who answered questions spoken by a
stern face, compared to subjects who answered questions spoken by a neutral
face, spent more time, made fewer mistakes, and wrote more comments.  They also
liked the experience and the face less.  We interpret this study in the light
of desires to anthropomorphize computer interface and suggest that incautiously
adding human characteristics, like face, voice, and facial expressions, could
make the experience for users worse rather than better.

%M C.CHI.94.1.92
%T Designing Presentation in Multimedia Interfaces
%S Multimedia Interfaces
%A Sutcliffe, Alistair
%A Faraday, Peter
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 92-98
%K Multimedia, Design guidelines, Methodology
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p92-sutcliffe/p92-sutcliffe.pdf
%X Current Multimedia interfaces are created primarily by intuition. 
Development of a method for analysis and design of Multimedia presentation
interfaces is described.  The study investigates task based information
analysis, persistence of information, selective attention and concurrency in
presentation.  The method gives an agenda of issues, diagrams and techniques
for specification, and guidelines for media selection and presentation
scripting.  Use of the method is illustrated with an example from a shipboard
emergency management system.

%M C.CHI.94.1.99
%T The "Starfire" Video Prototype Project: A Case History
%S Multimedia Interfaces
%A Tognazzini, Bruce
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 99-105
%K Film, Video, Video prototype, Prototype, Observation, Guideline, Drama,
Story, Interaction, Gesture, Stylus, Mouse, Voice recognition, Anthropomorphic
agent, Agent, Feedback, Social, Ethics, Privacy, Future
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p99-tognazzini/p99-tognazzini.pdf
%X Developing a new working computer system can now cost hundreds of millions
of dollars, all expended at great risk.  Company managers who must take
responsibility for making development decisions are loath to do so without
being able to see and understand the system they will be "buying."
   When Sunsoft launched the Starfire project to develop a next-generation
interface, we turned to video prototyping, in the form of a short 35 mm film
delivered in video.  Not only were we thus able to show in mature form many key
specifics of our new interface design, but we were able to communicate a strong
sense of the resulting overall user experience.  This paper describes
observations and guidelines we developed during the early stages of the film,
and what our experiences were in applying them.

%M C.CHI.94.1.106
%T Creating Charts by Demonstration
%S Active Support for Interaction
%A Myers, Brad A.
%A Goldstein, Jade
%A Goldberg, Matthew A.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 106-111
%K Data visualization, Demonstrational interfaces, Interactive techniques,
Business charts
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%O Color plates on page 475
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p106-myers/p106-myers.pdf
%X "Gold" is a new interactive editor that allows a user to draw examples of
the desired picture for business graphics and the system automatically produces
a visualization.  To specify a custom visualization in other systems, code must
be written or a bewildering array of dialog boxes and commands must be used. 
In Gold, as the user is drawing an example of the desired visualization,
knowledge of properties of the data and the typical graphics in business charts
are used to generalize the example and create a picture for the actual data. 
The goal is to make designing a complex, composite chart almost as easy as
sketching a picture on a napkin.

%M C.CHI.94.1.112
%T Interactive Graphic Design Using Automatic Presentation Knowledge
%S Active Support for Interaction
%A Roth, Steven F.
%A Kolojejchick, John
%A Mattis, Joe
%A Goldstein, Jade
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 112-117
%K Graphic design, Data visualization, Automatic presentation systems,
Intelligent interfaces, Design environments, Interactive techniques
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%O Color plates on page 476
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p112-roth/p112-roth.pdf
%X We present three novel tools for creating data graphics: (1) Sagebrush, for
assembling graphics from primitive objects like bars, lines and axes, (2)
SageBook, for browsing previously created graphics relevant to current needs,
and (3) SAGE, a knowledge-based presentation system that automatically designs
graphics and also interprets a user's specifications conveyed with the other
tools.  The combination of these tools supports two complementary processes in
a single environment: design as a constructive process of selecting and
arranging graphical elements, and design as a process of browsing and
customizing previous cases.  SAGE enhances user-directed design by completing
partial specifications, by retrieving previously created graphics based on
their appearance and data content, by creating the novel displays that users
specify, and by designing alternatives when users request them.  Our approach
was to propose interfaces employing styles of interaction that appear to
support graphic design.  Knowledge-based techniques were then applied to enable
the interfaces and enhance their usability.

%M C.CHI.94.1.118
%T Repeat and Predict -- Two Keys to Efficient Text Editing
%S Active Support for Interaction
%A Masui, Toshiyuki
%A Nakayama, Ken
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 118-123
%K Text editing, Predictive interface, Programming by example, PBE, Programming
by demonstration, PBD, Keyboard macro, Dynamic macro creation
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p118-masui/p118-masui.pdf
%X We propose a simple and powerful predictive interface technique for text
editing tasks.  With our technique called the dynamic macro creation, when a
user types a special "repeat" key after doing repetitive operations in a text
editor, an editing sequence corresponding to one iteration is detected, defined
as a macro, and executed at the same time.  Although being simple, a wide range
of repetitive tasks can be performed just by typing the repeat key.  When we
use another special "predict" key for conventional prediction techniques in
addition to the repeat key, wider range of prediction schemes can be performed
depending on the order of using these two keys.

%M C.CHI.94.1.124
%T Communicating About Communicating: Cross-Disciplinary Design of a Media
Space Interface
%S Studies of Communication and Cooperative Work
%A Harrison, Beverly
%A Mantei, Marilyn
%A Beirne, Garry
%A Narine, Tracy
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 124-130
%K User interface design, Interdisciplinary design, Desktop videoconferencing,
Videoconferencing, Media space
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p124-harrison/p124-harrison.pdf
%X This paper describes both the benefits and the challenges that result from
differing perspectives and methodologies in an interdisciplinary team.  Our
team of user interface designers, engineers, psychologists, and sociologists
designed and implemented a desktop videoconferencing system for a local
company.  We shared a common goal of smoothly installing the technology which
would support and enhance current work practices within the company.  Because
the project involved supporting human-human communication and work cooperation,
the sociologists had much more impact on the user interface design than had
been anticipated.  Furthermore, since any interface design impacted subsequent
work behavior in the study population, sociologists needed to understand
aspects of the interface design and to regulate the HCI group's influence on
and access to the user population.

%M C.CHI.94.1.131
%T Informal Workplace Communication: What is It Like and How Might We Support
It?
%S Studies of Communication and Cooperative Work
%A Whittaker, Steve
%A Frohlich, David
%A Daly-Jones, Owen
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 131-137
%K Informal communication, Audio, Video, CSCW, Workplace activity, Ethnography
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p131-whittaker/p131-whittaker.pdf
%X We present new findings about the nature of informal communications, derived
from a naturalistic study of people's everyday working activities.  We identify
why such interactions are so common, and valuable and how they are achieved in
the workplace.  We also address weaknesses in current systems that support such
interactions remotely and identify further requirements for better support.  We
also discuss the implications of this work for conversational theories.

%M C.CHI.94.1.138
%T A Room of Our Own: Experiences from a Direct Office Share
%S Studies of Communication and Cooperative Work
%A Adler, Annette
%A Henderson, Austin
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 138-144
%K Audio/video connections, Direct office share, Architecture of use,
Technology in use, Descriptions of work
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p138-adler/p138-adler.pdf
%X For nine months, the authors worked in a "direct office share" -- two
offices joined by unswitched audio/video connections.  This paper describes
that experience.  While working together, the authors were engaged in
developing and architecture of use for techno-social systems -- a framework for
describing distributed technology and people together at work.  The paper
therefore also seeks to achieve a second purpose: to present, mostly by
demonstrating its use, the beginnings of such an architecture.  This
description comprises three complementary "sightings" on the direct office
share, labeled 1, 1+1, and (1+1)+others.  Each sighting captures selected
aspects of technology (audio/video connections) in use by the authors at work.
This capturing of experience demonstrates by example that multiple sightings
provide a powerful form for describing techno-social systems, that current
patterns of use both support and interfere with the use of new technology, and
that only in a description that encompasses both the technical and social can
the use of technology be comprehended.

%M C.CHI.94.1.145
%T Methods in Search of Methodology -- Combining HCI and Object Orientation
%S Tools for Design
%A McDaniel, Susan E.
%A Olson, Gary M.
%A Olson, Judith S.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 145-151
%K Object-oriented methods, Human computer interaction, User-centered design,
Business process redesign
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p145-mcdaniel/p145-mcdaniel.pdf
%X Software design and user interface design and analysis methods are each
insufficient methods for ensuring good software development.  We propose a
combination of object-oriented analysis and design, human computer interaction,
and process redesign forged into one methodology.  We describe the use of these
methods in a project case study and conclude with a synopsis of how the methods
worked and lessons we learned.

%M C.CHI.94.1.152
%T Enhancing the Explanatory Power of Usability Heuristics
%S Tools for Design
%A Nielsen, Jakob
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 152-158
%K Heuristic evaluation, Usability problems
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p152-nielsen/p152-nielsen.pdf
%X Several published sets of usability heuristics were compared with a database
of existing usability problems drawn from a variety of projects in order to
determine what heuristics best explain actual usability problems.  Based on a
factor analysis of the explanations as well as an analysis of the heuristics
providing the broadcast explanatory coverage of the problems, a new set of nine
heuristics were derived: visibility of system status, match between system and
real world, user control and freedom, consistency and standards, error
prevention, recognition rather than recall, flexibility and efficiency of use,
aesthetic and minimalist design, and helping users recognize, diagnose, and
recover from errors.

%M C.CHI.94.1.159
%T Development and Evaluation of a Taxonomical Model of Behavioral
Representation Techniques
%S Tools for Design
%A Chase, J. D.
%A Schulman, Robert S.
%A Hartson, H. Rex
%A Hix, Deborah
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 159-165
%K Usability, Behavioral representation techniques, Interaction development,
Model, Empirical evaluation
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p159-chase/p159-chase.pdf
%X A user-centered approach to interactive system development requires a way to
represent the behavior of a user interacting with an interface.  While a number
of behavioral representation techniques exist, not all provide the capabilities
necessary to support the interaction development process.  Based on
observations of existing representation techniques and comments from the users
of the User Action Notation (UAN), a user- and task-centered behavioral
representation technique, we have developed a taxonomical model of behavioral
representation techniques.  Our model is an epistemological framework for
discussing, analyzing, extending, and comparing existing behavioral
representation techniques, as well as being a springboard for developing and
evaluating new techniques.  We present the model and results of our evaluation
demonstrating the model's reliability and utility within the context of
behavioral representation techniques.

%M C.CHI.94.1.166
%T Nonvisual Presentation of Graphical User Interfaces: Contrasting Two
Approaches
%S Auditory Information Interfaces
%A Mynatt, Elizabeth D.
%A Weber, Gerhard
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 166-172
%K Nonvisual HCI, Blind users, Graphical user interfaces, Auditory interfaces,
Tactile interfaces
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p166-mynatt/p166-mynatt.pdf
%X Users who are blind currently have limited access to graphical user
interfaces based on MS Windows or X Windows.  Past access strategies have used
speech synthesizers and braille displays to present text-based interfaces. 
Providing access to graphical applications creates new human interface design
challenges which must be addressed to build intuitive and efficient nonvisual
interfaces.  Two contrasting designs have been developed and implemented in the
projects Mercator and GUIB.  These systems differ dramatically in their
approaches to providing nonvisual interfaces to GUIs.  This paper discusses
four main interface design issues for access systems, and describes how the
Mercator and GUIB designs have addressed these issues.  It is hoped that the
exploration of these interfaces will lead to better nonvisual interfaces used
in low visibility and visually overloaded environments.

%M C.CHI.94.1.173
%T The Design and Evaluation of an Auditory-Enhanced ScrollBar
%S Auditory Information Interfaces
%A Brewster, Stephen A.
%A Wright, Peter C.
%A Edwards, Alistair D. N.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 173-179
%K Auditory interfaces, Multi-modal interfaces, Earcons, Sonification,
Auditory-enhanced widgets
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p173-brewster/p173-brewster.pdf
%X A structured method is described for the analysis of interactions to
identify situations where hidden information may exist and where non-speech
sound might be used to overcome the associated problems.  Interactions are
considered in terms of events, status and modes to find any hidden information.
This is then categorised in terms of the feedback needed to present it.  An
auditory-enhanced scrollbar, based on the method described, was then
experimentally tested.  Timing and error rates were used along with subjective
measures of workload.  Results from the experiment show a significant reduction
in time to complete one task, a decrease in the mental effort required and an
overall preference for the auditory-enhanced scrollbar.

%M C.CHI.94.1.180
%T Protofoil: Storing and Finding the Information Worker's Paper Documents in
an Electronic File Cabinet
%S Accessing and Using Stored Documents
%A Rao, Ramana
%A Card, Stuart K.
%A Johnson, Walter
%A Klotz, Leigh
%A Trigg, Randall H.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 180-185
%K Document imaging, Paper user interface, Information retrieval, Filing of
paper documents, Ad hoc information work
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%O Color plates on page 477
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p180-rao/p180-rao.pdf
%X Although the document imaging industry has taken off in the last few years,
document image filing for the individual information worker is still not
widespread or effective.  In this paper, we focus on building an electronic
filing system for paper documents that supports the ad hoc, multifarious work
of information workers.  Motivated by interviews with researchers and a survey
of descriptive studies of paper document filing, we have focussed on minimizing
or delaying costs of document filing and supporting a rich variety of methods
for assessing and using stored documents.  We have implemented a prototype
system called Protofoil for storing, retrieving, and manipulating paper
documents as electronic images that integrates many user interface -- paper and
workstation -- and information retrieval technologies.  Protofoil has been
tested through use in our laboratory, and has been deployed in a field study at
a lawyer's office.

%M C.CHI.94.1.186
%T The Marks are on the Knowledge Worker
%S Accessing and Using Stored Documents
%A Kidd, Alison
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 186-191
%K Knowledge workers, Information appliances, Writing, Memory
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p186-kidd/p186-kidd.pdf
%X A study of twelve knowledge workers showed that their defining
characteristic is that they are changed by the information they process.  Their
value lies in their diversity -- companies exploit the fact that these people
make different sense of the same phenomena and therefore respond in diverse
ways.  Knowledge workers do not carry much written information with them when
they travel and rarely consult their filed information when working in their
offices.  Their desks are cluttered and seemingly function as a spatial holding
pattern for current inputs and ideas.  My explanation is that once informed
(ie. given form) by some written material, these workers have no particular
need to retain a copy of the informing source.  However, if a piece of written
material has not yet informed them, then they cannot sensibly file it anyway
because its subsequent use or role in their world is still undetermined.  I
conclude that the valuable marks are on the knowledge worker rather than on the
paper or on the electronic file and suggest how computer support for knowledge
work might be better targeted on the act of informing rather than on passively
filing large quantities of information in a "disembodied" form.

%M C.CHI.94.1.192
%T Raison d'Etre: Capturing Design History and Rationale in Multimedia
Narratives
%S Social Aspects of Design
%A Carroll, John M.
%A Alpert, Sherman R.
%A Karat, John
%A Van Deusen, Mary
%A Rosson, Mary Beth
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 192-197
%K Documentation, Design history, Collaboration, Multimedia database,
Hypermedia
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%O Color plates on page 478
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p192-carroll/p192-carroll.pdf
%X Raison d'Etre is a hypermedia design history application.  It provides
access to a database of video clips containing stories and personal
perspectives of design team members recorded at various times through the
course of a project.  The system is intended to provide a simple framework for
recording and organizing the informal history and rationale that design teams
create and share in the course of their collaboration.  This paper describes
(1) the scenarios of use we are trying to support, (2) the methods we used
collecting and organizing the database, and (3) the status of our prototype.

%M C.CHI.94.1.198
%T Facilitating Effective HCI Design Meetings
%S Social Aspects of Design
%A Bennett, John L.
%A Karat, John
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 198-204
%K Methodologies, Design, Software engineering, Design process, Group work
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p198-bennett/p198-bennett.pdf
%X Over several years we have participated as facilitators in many
Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) design meetings.  Our focus has been on
developing team results needed to achieve user-centered design of software for
computer systems.  We describe frameworks for partnership, stages of meetings,
and team conversations that we have found useful.  In order to illustrate our
general approach, we select one design meeting experience as a case study.  We
close with observations on how facilitation skills might be developed by design
team participants.  This is needed in response to an emerging requirement for
effective collaborative teamwork in HCI design activities.

%M C.CHI.94.1.205
%T Interface Techniques for Minimizing Disfluent Input to Spoken Language
Systems
%S Designing Spoken Language Systems
%A Oviatt, Sharon
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 205-210
%K Speech disfluency, Predictive modeling, Interface design, Spoken language
systems, Robust processing
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p205-oviatt/p205-oviatt.pdf
%X This research examines spontaneous spoken disfluencies during human-computer
interaction, presents a predictive model accounting for their occurrence, and
outlines interface techniques for minimizing disfluent input.  Data were
collected during two empirical studies in which people spoke or wrote to a
highly interactive simulated system.  The studies were based on a
within-subject factorial design in which input modality and presentation format
were varied.  Two separate factors were found to be associated with an increase
in speech disfluency rates: length of utterance, and lack of structure in the
presentation format.  A linear model based on utterance length alone was able
to predict 77% of all spoken disfluencies in this research.  Therefore, design
techniques capable of channeling users' speech into briefer sentences
potentially could eliminate most spoken disfluencies.  Furthermore, changing
the structure of the presentation format successfully eliminated 70% of all
disfluent spoken input.  The long-term goal of this research is to provide
empirical guidance for the design of robust spoken language technology, which
eventually may be formulated as a set of user interface guidelines.

%M C.CHI.94.1.211
%T An Object-Oriented Approach to Dialogue Management in Spoken Language
Systems
%S Designing Spoken Language Systems
%A Sparks, Randall
%A Meiskey, Lori
%A Brunner, Hans
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 211-217
%K Dialog management, Spoken language system, Object-oriented design, User
interface
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p211-sparks/p211-sparks.pdf
%X We describe an object-oriented approach to dialog management for the design
of spoken language interfaces to information services.  Sophisticated dialogue
management is important when relatively complex information must be accessed
using relatively simple interfaces, as in the case with speech over the
telephone.  In our approach, dialog states are abstract objects that
encapsulate the information and behavior the system needs to interact
successfully with the user at any given point in an extended dialog.  An
inheritance hierarchy determines the properties of particular dialog states,
which are instantiated dynamically during the user-system dialog as they are
needed.  Dialog management rules are methods that respond to different types of
user inputs in a manner appropriate for the current dialog state.  This
approach has been used to implement a prototype of a dialogue-based information
service, called the Voice Navigation System, which gives users driving
directions in the Denver metropolitan area.

%M C.CHI.94.1.218
%T Automatic Generation of Interactively Consistent Search Dialogs
%S Automatic Support in Design and Use
%A Olsen, Dan R., Jr.
%A Holladay, Walter
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 218-224
%K User interface, Tool-kits, Searching, Automatic transformation
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p218-olsen/p218-olsen.pdf
%X The problem of creating search dialogs which are consistent with normal user
interface dialogs is posed.  The ART user interface tool kit is presented.  The
features of top-down filtering of interactive events and the modeling of
interactor semantics as editing variables are discussed.  Two special
interactor filters are described which when wrapped around an editing dialog
will transform that dialog into one which edits search patterns for the same
class of objects.

%M C.CHI.94.1.225
%T Automatic Generation of Help from Interface Design Models
%S Automatic Support in Design and Use
%A Moriyon, Roberto
%A Szekely, Pedro
%A Neches, Robert
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 225-231
%K Automatic help generation, Model-based interface design, Hypertext-based
help, Help customization, Help generation rules
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p225-moriyon/p225-moriyon.pdf
%X Model-based interface design can save substantial effort in building help
systems for interactive applications by generating help automatically from the
model used to implement the interface, and by providing a framework for
developers to easily refine the automatically-generated help texts.  This paper
describes a system that generates hypertext-based help about data presented in
application displays, commands to manipulate data, and interaction techniques
to invoke commands.  The refinement component provides several levels of
customization, including programming-by-example techniques to let developers
edit directly help windows that the system produces, and the possibility to
refine help generation rules.

%M C.CHI.94.1.232
%T Automating Interface Evaluation
%S Automatic Support in Design and Use
%A Byrne, Michael D.
%A Wood, Scott D.
%A Sukaviriya, Piyawadee "Noi"
%A Foley, James D.
%A Kieras, David
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 232-237
%K GOMS, Usability, User interface design environment, Interface evaluation,
Formal models of the user, UIMS
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p232-byrne/p232-byrne.pdf
%X One method for user interface analysis that has proven successful is formal
analysis, such as GOMS-based analysis.  Such methods are often criticized for
being difficult to learn, or at the very least an additional burden for the
system designer.  However, if the process of constructing and using formal
models could be automated as part of the interface design environment, such
models could be of even greater value.  This paper describes an early version
of such a system, called USAGE (the UIDE System for semi-Automated GOMS
Evaluation).  Given the application model necessary to drive the UIDE system,
USAGE generates an NGOMSL model of the interface which can be "run" on a
typical set of user tasks and provide execution and learning time estimates.

%M C.CHI.94.1.238
%T The Cost-of-Knowledge Characteristic Function: Display Evaluation for
Direct-Walk Dynamic Information Visualizations
%S Evaluation Methods
%A Card, Stuart K.
%A Pirolli, Peter
%A Mackinlay, Jock D.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 238-244
%K Information visualization, Dynamic displays, Methodology, Evaluation, 3D
user interfaces, Information Visualizer
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p238-card/p238-card.pdf
%X In this paper we present a method, the Cost-of-Knowledge Characteristic
Function, for characterizing information access from dynamic displays.  The
paper works out this method for a simple, but important, class of dynamic
displays called direct-walk interactive information visualizations, in which
information is accessed through a sequence of mouse selections and key
selections.  The method is used to characterize a simple calendar task for an
application of the Information Visualizer, to compute the changes in
characterization as the result of possible program variants, and to conduct
empirical comparison between different systems with the same function.

%M C.CHI.94.1.245
%T Comparative Usability Evaluation: Critical Incidents and Critical Threads
%S Evaluation Methods
%A Koenemann-Belliveau, Jurgen
%A Carroll, John M.
%A Rosson, Mary Beth
%A Singley, Mark K.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 245-251
%K User interfaces, Evaluation methodology, Formative evaluation, Usability
evaluation
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p245-koenemann-belliveau/p245-koenemann-belliveau.pdf
%X Empirical usability evaluations (particularly formative evaluations [13])
hinge on observing and interpreting critical incidents [8] of use.  We proposed
[3,5] augmenting critical incident methods by analysis of what we called
critical threads: sets of causally related user episodes that, taken together,
define major usability themes.  This paper extends this work to the comparative
usability analysis of a related artifact.  We discuss how our earlier claims
analysis was used to orient and simplify our current evaluation efforts.

%M C.CHI.94.1.252
%T Usability Testing in the Field: Bringing the Laboratory to the User
%S Evaluation Methods
%A Rowley, David E.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 252-257
%K Usability testing, Formative evaluation, Field testing, Cooperative
evaluation
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p252-rowley/p252-rowley.pdf
%X Usability testing is not always best accomplished within the confines of a
specially equipped usability laboratory.  Logistics and resource constraints
sometimes necessitate taking the testing out on the road.  Field testing
provides an opportunity to sample from a distributed customer base -- a
requirement of significant relevance when competing in a global market.  What's
more, usability testing in the field can offer benefits in both marketing and
public relations that in-house testing may miss.  This paper describes some of
the issues surrounding a field testing program, and gives suggestions about how
such an undertaking can be accomplished under strict financial, resource and
schedule limitations.  A case study is presented to help illustrate the
planning and evaluation process, and to provide insights into the types of
problems such an endeavor is likely to encounter, as well as some valuable
lessons learned along the way.

%M C.CHI.94.1.258
%T User Learning and Performance with Marking Menus
%S Pen Input
%A Kurtenbach, Gordon
%A Buxton, William
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 258-264
%K Marking menus, Pie menus, Gestures, Pen based input, Accelerators, Input
devices, Multimedia
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p258-kurtenbach/p258-kurtenbach.pdf
%X A marking menu is designed to allow a user to perform a menu selection by
either popping-up a radial (or pie) menu, or by making a straight mark in the
direction of the desired menu item without popping-up the menu.  Previous
evaluations in laboratory settings have shown the potential for marking menus.
This paper reports on a case study of user behavior with marking menus in a
real work situation.  The study demonstrates the following: First, marking
menus are used as designed.  When users become expert with the menus, marks are
used extensively.  However, the transition to using marks is not one way. 
Expert users still switch back to menus to refresh their memory of menu layout.
Second, marking is an extremely efficient interaction technique.  Using a mark
on average was 3.5 times faster than using the menu.  Finally, design
principles can be followed that make menu item/mark associations easier to
learn, and interaction efficient.

%M C.CHI.94.1.265
%T T-Cube: A Fast, Self-Disclosing Pen-Based Alphabet
%S Pen Input
%A Venolia, Dan
%A Neiberg, Forrest
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 265-270
%K Stylus, Text entry, Pen-based computing, Audio feedback
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p265-venolia/p265-venolia.pdf
%X An interface for entering text to a pen-based computer is described.  The
technique proposes a new alphabet, where each letter is a flick gesture.  These
flick gestures are self-disclosing using pie menus.  An experiment determined
the speeds of executing the flick gestures and the transition speeds between
gestures.  An assignment of characters to gestures is developed and evaluated.
Audio feedback is used to convey whether a gesture was well- or badly-formed. 
A longitudinal study showed clear progress on a learning curve.  The method is
compared to soft keyboards, handwriting recognition systems, and unistrokes.

%M C.CHI.94.1.271
%T Filochat: Handwritten Notes Provide Access to Recorded Conversations
%S Pen Input
%A Whittaker, Steve
%A Hyland, Patrick
%A Wiley, Myrtle
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 271-277
%K Audio, "Speech-as-data", Retrieval, Handwriting, Notes, Indexing
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p271-whittaker/p271-whittaker.pdf
%X We present a novel application which integrates handwriting and recorded
audio in a semi-portable device: It allows users to straightforwardly access
particular points in recorded spontaneous speech via handwritten notes using
temporal indexing.  Initial interviews with 23 users and 28 non-users of office
audio showed a requirement for supplementing handwritten meeting notes with a
verbatim speech record of the conversation, as well as problems in accessing
particular points in long audio recordings.  On the basis of this, we built a
prototype system that combined co-indexed handwritten notes and recorded audio
in a digital notebook.  The prototype was tested on 67 users in field and
laboratory trials.  Laboratory studies showed objective benefits of combined
notes and audio over notes alone.  The utility of the access method was shown
by improved performance over current audio technology such as dictaphones.  We
also found perceived benefits of higher quality meeting minutes in field
trials.  An unforeseen benefit was the use of this device as an audio editing
tool.  We discuss further technical extensions and user issues in relation to
the prototype.

%M C.CHI.94.1.278
%T A Preliminary Analysis of the Products of HCI Research, Using Pro Forma
Abstracts
%S HCI Research?
%A Newman, William
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 278-284
%K Human-computer interaction, Research methods, Research products, System
design, Abstracts, Radical solutions
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p278-newman/p278-newman.pdf
%X A classification scheme for the products of engineering research is
described, involving three principal categories of product: improved modelling
techniques, solutions and tools.  These categories can be linked to the
contributions they make to engineering design.  A set of pro forma abstracts
are proposed as a reliable means of identifying the three categories.  A
preliminary sample of published engineering papers indicates that normally at
least 90 percent of the papers fall into these three categories.  For recent
CHI and InterCHI conferences, however, only about 30 percent of papers can be
thus categorized.  The remainder appear mostly to describe radical solutions
(solutions not derived from incremental improvements to solutions to the same
problem), and experience and/or heuristics gained mostly from studies of
radical solutions.  Some comments are made about the reasons for these
departures from normal engineering research practice.

%M C.CHI.94.1.285
%T Supporting Knowledge-Base Evolution with Incremental Formalization
%S Design Evaluation
%A Shipman, Frank M., III
%A McCall, Raymond
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 285-291
%K Formalization, Structure, Hypermedia, Knowledge-based systems, Knowledge
representation, Knowledge acquisition
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p285-shipman/p285-shipman.pdf
%X Computers require formally represented information to support users but
users often cannot provide it.  This paper looks at an approach called
"incremental formalization", when users express information informally and the
system supports them in formalizing it.  Incremental formalization requires a
system architecture that can integrate formal and informal representations and
enable and support moving information upward in formality.  The system should
include tools to capture naturally available informal information and
knowledge-based techniques to suggest possible formalizations of this informal
information.  The Hyper-Object Substrate (HOS), a system with these
characteristics, has been applied to a variety of domains, including network
design, archeological site analysis and neuroscience education.  Users were
successful in adding information informally and in incrementally formalizing
that information.  In particular, informal text was added, which later had
attributes added and partook in inheritance relationships.

%M C.CHI.94.1.292
%T Seeding, Evolutionary Growth and Reseeding: Supporting the Incremental
Development of Design Environments
%S Design Evaluation
%A Fischer, Gerhard
%A McCall, Ray
%A Ostwald, Jonathan
%A Reeves, Brent
%A Shipman, Frank
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 292-298
%K Design, Design environments, Domain-orientation, Evolution of information
spaces, Seeds, Reseeding, Annotation, Incremental formalization, Tacit
knowledge, Situated cognition, End-user modifiability, Collaborative design
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p292-fischer/p292-fischer.pdf
%X We describe an approach to acquiring information during the creation and use
of domain-oriented environments.  Our model consists of three phases: seeding,
evolutionary growth, and reseeding.  A seed for a domain-oriented design
environment is created through a participatory design process between
environment developers and domain designers by incorporating domain-specific
knowledge into a domain-independent architecture for design environments. 
Evolutionary growth takes place as domain designers use the seeded environment
to undertake specific projects.  Reseeding is a process that reinvolves the
environment developers to help domain designers better organize, formalize, and
generalize knowledge added during the use phases.

%M C.CHI.94.1.299
%T Talking Through Design: Requirements and Resistance in Cooperative
Prototyping
%S Design Evaluation
%A Bowers, John
%A Pycock, James
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 299-305
%K Requirements, Participatory design, Interaction analysis
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p299-bowers/p299-bowers.pdf
%X Some analyses are presented of talk between designers and a potential user
in a participatory design session where a prototype application was worked with
to determine future requirements.  We explore the ways in which design
suggestions are formulated and argued for, and how requirements emerge as a
negotiated product of interaction.  On this basis, we re-examine user
participation in design and the relationship between prototyping and user
requirements.  We conclude by offering a notion (gradients of resistance in
design space) to help understanding the interplay of the social and the
technical in design.

%M C.CHI.94.1.306
%T The Movable Filter as a User Interface Tool
%S Information Visualization
%A Stone, Maureen C.
%A Fishkin, Ken
%A Bier, Eric A.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 306-312
%K Computer graphics, Methodology and techniques, Interaction techniques,
Information interfaces and presentation, User interfaces, Interaction styles,
Computer graphics, Picture/image generation, Viewing algorithms, Computer
graphics, Graphics utilities, Graphics editors, Viewing filter, Lens,
Transparent, Visualization, Editing, Macro, Graphics
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p306-stone/p306-stone.pdf
%X Magic Lens filters are a new user interface tool that combine an
arbitrarily-shaped region with an operator that changes the view of objects
viewed through that region.  These tools can be interactively positioned over
on-screen applications much as a magnifying glass is moved over a newspaper. 
They can be used to help the user understand various types of information, from
text documents to scientific visualizations.  Because these filters are movable
and apply to only part of the screen, they have a number of advantages over
traditional window-wide viewing modes: they employ an attractive metaphor based
on physical lenses, show a modified view in the context of the original view,
limit clutter to a small region, allow easy construction of visual macros and
provide a uniform paradigm that can be extended across different types of
information and applications.  This paper describes these advantages in more
detail and illustrates them with examples of magic lens filters in use over a
variety of applications.

%M C.CHI.94.1.313
%T Visual Information Seeking: Tight Coupling of Dynamic Query Filters with
Starfield Displays
%S Information Visualization
%A Ahlberg, Christopher
%A Shneiderman, Ben
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 313-317
%K Database query, Dynamic queries, Information seeking, Tight coupling,
Starfield displays
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%O Color plates on pages 479-480
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p313-ahlberg/p313-ahlberg.pdf
%X This paper offers new principles for visual information seeking (VIS).  A
key concept is to support browsing, which is distinguished from familiar query
composition and information retrieval because of its emphasis on rapid
filtering to reduce result sets, progressive refinement of search parameters,
continuous reformulation of goals, and visual scanning to identify results. 
VIS principles developed include: dynamic query filters (query parameters
rapidly adjusted with sliders, buttons, maps, etc.), starfield displays
(two-dimensional scatterplots to structure result sets and zooming to reduce
clutter), and tight coupling (interrelating query components to preserve
display invariants and support progressive refinement combined with an emphasis
on using search output to foster search input).  A FilmFinder prototype using a
movie database demonstrates these principles in a VIS environment.

%M C.CHI.94.1.318
%T The Table Lens: Merging Graphical and Symbolic Representations in an
Interactive Focus+Context Visualization for Tabular Information
%S Information Visualization
%A Rao, Ramana
%A Card, Stuart K.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 318-322
%K Information visualization, Exploratory data analysis, Graphical
representations, Focus+context technique, Fisheye technique, Tables,
Spreadsheets, Relational tables
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%O Color plates on pages 481-482
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p318-rao/p318-rao.pdf
%X We present a new visualization, called the Table Lens, for visualizing and
making sense of large tables.  The visualization uses a focus+context (fisheye)
technique that works effectively on tabular information because it allows
display of crucial label information and multiple distal focus areas.  In
addition, a graphical mapping scheme for depicting table contents has been
developed for the most widespread kind of tables, the case-by-variables table.
The Table Lens fuses symbolic and graphical representations into a single
coherent view that can be fluidly adjusted by the user.  This fusion and
interactivity enables an extremely rich and natural style of direct
manipulation exploratory data analysis.

%M C.CHI.94.1.323
%T Evaluating the Influence of Interface Styles and Multiple Access Paths in
Hypertext
%S Access to Organized Data Structures
%A Vora, Pawan R.
%A Helander, Martin G.
%A Shalin, Valerie L.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 323-329
%K Hypertext, Usability, Design guidelines, Graphical vs. textual interfaces,
Single vs. multiple organizations
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p323-vora/p323-vora.pdf
%X No specific guidelines exist to assist in designing usable hypertext
systems.  In this paper, we discuss three experiments to study usability issues
in hypertext design.  In the first experiment, we investigated usability of
four types of hypertext interfaces: graphical with labeled links (GL),
graphical with unlabeled links (GU), textual with embedded links (TE), and
textual with a separate list of related items/links (TS).  The results favored
GL interface for novice users.  However, most subjects suggested incorporating
multiple access pathways to facilitate search.  To determine how hypertext
designers could establish, a priori, these multiple structures, we extracted
organization schemes from domain experts in the second experiment.  Distinctly
different organization structures emerged from experts with different
professional backgrounds.  Therefore, we modified the hypertext to incorporate
multiple organization structures.  In experiment 3, we compared subjects'
performance using multiple and single organization structures.  Multiple
structures, contrary to previous evidence, enhanced search performance.  The
benefits of multiple structures, however, diminished over time.  These
experiments provide empirical evidence in favor of GL interfaces and
incorporation of multiple organization structures to improve hypertext
usability.

%M C.CHI.94.1.330
%T Multitrees: Enriching and Reusing Hierarchical Structure
%S Access to Organized Data Structures
%A Furnas, George W.
%A Zacks, Jeff
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 330-336
%K Information graphs, Representation, Hierarchies, Reuse, Directed graphs,
Hypertext structures, Graphical browsers
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p330-furnas/p330-furnas.pdf
%X This paper introduces multitrees, a new type of structure for representing
information.  Multitrees are a class of directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) with the
unusual property that they have large easily identifiable substructures that
are trees.  These subtrees have a natural semantic interpretation providing
alternate hierarchical contexts for information, as well as providing a natural
model for hierarchical reuse.  The numerous trees found within multitrees also
afford familiar, tree-based graphical interactions.

%M C.CHI.94.1.337
%T A Keystroke Level Analysis of a Graphics Application: Manual Map Digitizing
%S GOMS Analysis
%A Haunold, Peter
%A Kuhn, Werner
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 337-343
%K Keystroke-level model, Graphics, Map digitizing, Geographic information
systems, Interface design optimization
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p337-haunold/p337-haunold.pdf
%X Transforming analog graphic data, such as maps, into digital format by
manual digitizing is slow and expensive, but is nevertheless widely performed.
Studies of digitizing methods to find opportunities for optimization are
therefore warranted.  The work reported here investigates the possibility of
applying the Keystroke-Level Model to the modeling and optimization of manual
map digitizing tasks.  We tested the suitability of the model for manual
digitizing at a national mapping agency and determined unit tasks with their
performance times.  The paper describes the design of an experiment to measure
performance times under production conditions.  Two new keystroke level
operators are defined for manual digitizing.  The use and suitability of the
model are demonstrated by analyzing the differences between predicted and
measured performance times for unit tasks.  The results confirm the
applicability and the economic importance of keystroke-level analyses of real
world tasks.

%M C.CHI.94.1.344
%T A GOMS Analysis of the Advanced Automated Cockpit
%S GOMS Analysis
%A Irving, Sharon
%A Polson, Peter
%A Irving, J. E.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 344-350
%K Formal models, GOMS, "Glass-cockpit", Air crew training
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p344-irving/p344-irving.pdf
%X Using models developed to analyze office automation (e.g. [3]), we
identified skills needed to perform tasks using the flight management computer
on advanced commercial aircraft.  Our GOMS analysis showed that all tasks
carried out on the device can be described in terms of three methods.  Novices
who received instruction in a part-task computer based training guided by the
GOMS analysis were tested in a flight simulator.  Their performance was
compared with pilots who received an integrated type of training representing
three to ten times the amount of time on task and with pilots who had been
using this equipment on the line for at least one year ("experts"). 
Inconsistencies revealed by the analysis were reflected in the performance of
novices (experimentally and professionally trained) as well as the experts.

%M C.CHI.94.1.351
%T A Validation of the GOMS Model Methodology in the Development of a
Specialized, Commercial Software Application
%S GOMS Analysis
%A Gong, Richard
%A Kieras, David
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 351-357
%K GOMS, Analytical methods, Interface design, Usability, User testing,
Performance prediction
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p351-gong/p351-gong.pdf
%X A formal GOMS model approach was applied to the design and evaluation of the
user interface for a specialized, commercial software application.  This
approach was able to identify significant usability problems embedded in the
procedures by which users interact with the interface.  A redesign of the
interface based on the GOMS approach resulted in a 46% reduction in learning
time and a 39% reduction in execution time during a formal evaluation,
differences predicted by the GOMS analysis.  Corrections to the GOMS time
estimation techniques were necessary to obtain accurate (within 9%) predictions
of absolute learning and execution times.

%M C.CHI.94.1.358
%T A Taxonomy of See-Through Tools
%S Visual Interaction Techniques
%A Bier, Eric A.
%A Stone, Maureen C.
%A Fishkin, Ken
%A Buxton, William
%A Baudel, Thomas
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 358-364
%K Computer graphics, Methodology and techniques, Interaction techniques,
Information interfaces and presentation, User interfaces, Interaction styles,
Computer graphics, Picture/image generation, Viewing algorithms, Computer
graphics, Graphics utilities, Graphics editors, User interface, Control panel,
Transparent, Multi-hand, Viewing filter, Button, Lens, Menu, Macro
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p358-bier/p358-bier.pdf
%X In current interfaces, users select objects, apply operations, and change
viewing parameters in distinct steps that require switching attention among
several screen areas.  Our See-Through Interface software reduces steps by
locating tools on a transparent sheet that can be moved over applications with
one hand using a blackball, while the other hand controls a mouse cursor.  The
user clicks through a tool onto application objects, simultaneously selecting
an operation and an operand.  Tools may include graphical filters that display
a customized view of application objects.  Compared to traditional interactors,
these tools save steps, require no permanent screen space, reduce temporal
modes, apply to multiple applications, and facilitate customization.  This
paper presents a taxonomy of see-through tools that considers variations in
each of the steps they perform.  As examples, we describe particular
see-through tools that perform graphical editing and text editing operations.

%M C.CHI.94.1.365
%T The Alphaslider: A Compact and Rapid Selector
%S Visual Interaction Techniques
%A Ahlberg, Christopher
%A Shneiderman, Ben
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 365-371
%K Alphaslider, Widget, Selection technology, Menus, Dynamic queries
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p365-ahlberg/p365-ahlberg.pdf
%X Research has suggested that rapid, serial, visual presentation of text
(RSVP) may be an effective way to scan and search through lists of text strings
in search of words, names, etc.  The Alphaslider widget employs RSVP as a
method for rapidly scanning and searching lists or menus in a graphical user
interface environment.  The Alphaslider only uses an area less than 7 cm x 2.5
cm.  The tiny size of the Alphaslider allows it to be placed on a credit card,
on a control panel for a VCR, or as a widget in a direct manipulation based
database interface.  An experiment was conducted with four Alphaslider designs
which showed that novice Alphaslider users could locate one item in a list of
10,000 film titles in 24 seconds on average, an expert user in about 13
seconds.

%M C.CHI.94.1.372
%T Specification of Interface Interaction Objects
%S Designing Interaction Objects
%A Carr, David A.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 372-378
%K User interface specification, User interface design
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p372-carr/p372-carr.pdf
%X User Interface Management Systems have significantly reduced the effort
required to build a user interface.  However, current systems assume a set of
standard "widgets" and make no provisions for defining new ones.  This forces
user interface designers to either do without or laboriously build new widgets
with code.  The Interface Object Graph is presented as a method for specifying
and communicating the design of interaction objects or widgets.  Two sample
specifications are presented, one for a secure switch and the other for a two
dimensional graphical browser.

%M C.CHI.94.1.379
%T Recursive Interfaces for Reactive Objects
%S Designing Interaction Objects
%A Travers, Michael
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 379-385
%K Programming environments, Objects, Direct manipulation, Visual
object-oriented programming, Agents, Rules
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p379-travers/p379-travers.pdf
%X LiveWorld is a graphical environment designed to support research into
programming with active objects.  It offers novice users a world of manipulable
objects, with graphical objects and elements of the programs that make them
move integrated into a single interaction framework.  LiveWorld is designed to
support a style of programming based on rule-like agents that allow objects to
be responsive to their environment.  In order to make this style of programming
accessible to novices, computational objects such as behavioral rules need to
be just as concrete and accessible as the graphic objects.  LiveWorld fills
this need by using a novel object system, Framer, in which the usual structures
of an object-oriented system (classes, objects, and slots) are replaced with a
single one, the frame, that has a simple and intuitive graphic representation.
   This unification enables the construction of an interface that achieves
elegance, simplicity and power.  Allowing graphic objects and internal
computational objects to be manipulated through an integrated interface can
provide a conceptual scaffolding for novices to enter into programming.

%M C.CHI.94.1.386
%T The Value of a Baseline in Determining Design Success
%S HCI in the Real World
%A Burkhart, Brenda
%A Hemphill, Darold
%A Jones, Scott
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 386-391
%K Comparative testing, Baseline, CUI, Design principles, GUI, Usability
testing, Usability goals
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p386-burkhart/p386-burkhart.pdf
%X This paper examines the value of a baseline for usability testing in a
software development organization and the specific issues that arose during the
implementations of the usability test.  Specifically, this testing involved the
transitioning of a character-based user interface to a graphical user
interface.  In order to assess the efficacy of the new design and to determine
if performance improvements were achieved with the new interface, a baseline
was established to enable a comparative usability assessment.  This usability
test focused on comparing performance on similar tasks for both interfaces. 
Results indicated that the new interface was faster than the old interface for
similar tasks.  Usability goals were established at an arbitrary 50%
improvement in task time over the old system.  An average of 56% improvement
was achieved.  Advantages of the comparative design, namely better
identification of tasks to target for improvement and establishment of an
archive of data, are discussed.  In addition, recommendations for reducing the
effort involved in staging a comparative usability test are discussed.

%M C.CHI.94.1.392
%T User Preferences for Task-Specific vs. Generic Application Software
%S HCI in the Real World
%A Nardi, Bonnie A.
%A Johnson, Jeff A.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 392-398
%K Task-specificity, Task analysis, Slidemaking, End user computing,
Interoperability, Collaborative work
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p392-nardi/p392-nardi.pdf
%X We conducted an ethnographic study to investigate the use of generic vs.
task-specific application software by people who create and maintain
presentation slides.  Sixteen people were interviewed to determine how they
prepare slides; what software they use; and how well the software supports
various aspects of the task.  The informants varied in how central slide
preparation was to their jobs.  The study was motivated by our beliefs that: 1)
some software programs are task-generic, intended for use in a wide variety of
tasks, while others are task-specific, intended to support very specific tasks;
2) task-specific software is preferable, but is often not used because of cost,
learning effort, or lack of availability; and 3) people who infrequently
perform a task tend to use generic tools, while people who frequently perform a
task tend to use task-specific tools.  Our findings suggest that the truth is
more complex: 1) task-specificity/genericness is not a simple continuum; 2) a
task cannot be looked at in isolation without reference to a higher level goal;
and 3) an alternative to task-specific programs is a modular collection of
independent interoperable services supporting small subtasks.

%M C.CHI.94.1.399
%T Surrogate Users: Mediating Between Social and Technical Interaction
%S HCI in the Real World
%A Lawrence, Deborah
%A Atwood, Michael E.
%A Dews, Shelly
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 399-404
%K Dialogue analysis, System evaluation, Surrogate users, Database retrieval
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p399-lawrence/p399-lawrence.pdf
%X Although human machine interaction is typically studied in the context of
one person interacting with a computer, people often interact with computers in
support of their communication with other people.  Telephone operators are an
excellent example of such "surrogate users"; they use workstations to carry out
a goal for a customer, such as finding a telephone number.  As the customer's
intermediary, the operator must construct an accurate and well-specified
search, though the information offered may be incomplete or inaccurate.  We
have examined both the social interaction and the human-computer interaction in
such situations using several different types of analysis, first in CPM-GOMS
models [1,2] and more recently in dialogue analysis and analysis of dialogue
timelines.  Our work has alerted us to the special human performance
requirements of surrogate user tasks.

%M C.CHI.94.1.405
%T Children's Use of Mouse-Based Interfaces to Control Virtual Travel
%S Evaluating Pointing Devices
%A Strommen, Erik
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 405-410
%K Children, Interface, Virtual travel
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p405-strommen/p405-strommen.pdf
%X Children's performances using three different mouse interfaces to control
point-of-view (POV) navigation in a prototype of a CD-ROM based "virtual
forest" were assessed.  Results indicate that while children readily understood
POV movement and were able to use all three interfaces successfully, each
interface was less than optimal for different reasons.  An assessment of the
strengths and weaknesses of each interface in light of the intended usage
scenario was conducted, and the least problematic of the three was selected for
the system.

%M C.CHI.94.1.411
%T The Effect of Reducing Homing Time on the Speed of a Finger-Controlled
Isometric Pointing Device
%S Evaluating Pointing Devices
%A Douglas, Sarah A.
%A Mithal, Anant Kartik
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 411-416
%K Fitts' law, Pointing devices, Homing time, Keystroke level model, Index of
difficulty, Index of performance, Mouse, Joystick
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p411-douglas/p411-douglas.pdf
%X This paper describes a study of a new pointing device.  Subjects'
performance with two pointing devices was compared in two tasks.  One task
required pointing, the other both pointing and typing.  One group used the
standard keyboard and mouse combination.  The other used a keyboard with a
joystick under the 'J' key.  The mouse was faster for both tasks despite the
reduction in homing time shown by the joystick and keyboard combination.  The
experiment shows that the mouse is the faster pointing device, and that a
finger controlled device complies with Fitts' law.  In addition, we show that
efforts to design faster pointing devices should focus on increasing the Fitts'
Law Index of Performance rather than reducing the homing time.

%M C.CHI.94.1.417
%T Two-Handed Input in a Compound Task
%S Evaluating Pointing Devices
%A Kabbash, Paul
%A Buxton, William
%A Sellen, Abigail
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 417-423
%K Two-handed input, GUIs, Toolglass, Palette menus, Compound tasks
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p417-kabbash/p417-kabbash.pdf
%X Four techniques for performing a compound drawing/color selection task were
studied: a unimanual technique, a bimanual technique where different hands
controlled independent subtasks, and two other bimanual techniques in which the
action of the right hand depended on that of the left.  We call this latter
class of two-handed technique "asymmetric dependent," and predict that because
tasks of this sort most closely conform to bimanual tasks in the everyday
world, they would give rise to the best performance.  Results showed that one
of the asymmetric bimanual techniques, called the Toolglass technique, did
indeed give rise to the best overall performance.  Reasons for the superiority
of the technique are discussed in terms of their implications for design. 
These are contrasted with other kinds of two-handed techniques, and it is shown
how, if designed inappropriately, two hands can be worse than one.

%M C.CHI.94.1.424
%T In Search of Design Principles for Programming Environments
%S Analysis of Programming Environments
%A Houde, Stephanie
%A Sellman, Royston
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 424-430
%K Programming environments, Authoring tools, User-centered design
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p424-houde/p424-houde.pdf
%X Software development environments are becoming progressively more advanced
in their support for construction of large software applications.  However, it
is still tedious and time consuming for programmers to build even simple
applications.  This paper describes an exploratory study which identifies some
common problems experienced by programmers working with a range of currently
available tools.  Eight professional programmers were observed while each built
the same simple application using a different software development environment.
Problems encountered during the authoring process were noted.  Four categories
of common problems emerged.  Design principles implied by these categories are
suggested.

%M C.CHI.94.1.431
%T Programmable Design Environments: Integrating End-User Programming with
Domain-Oriented Assistance
%S Analysis of Programming Environments
%A Eisenberg, Michael
%A Fischer, Gerhard
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 431-437
%K Programmable design environments, End-user programming, Programmable
applications, Domain-oriented design environments, Critics
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p431-eisenberg/p431-eisenberg.pdf
%X Programmable design environments (PDEs) are computational environments that
integrate the conceptual frameworks and components of (a) design environments
and (b) programmable applications.  The integration of these two approaches
provides elements (such as software "critics" and "query-able objects") that
assist users in learning both the application and its domain; in addition, an
interactive "application-enriched" end-user programming environment stresses
the values of expressiveness and modifiability.  By way of illustration, we
present a newly-developed programmable design environment, SchemeChart, for the
domain of charting and information displays.

%M C.CHI.94.1.438
%T "Why is a Raven Like a Writing Desk?" Lessons in Interface Consistency and
Analogical Reasoning from Two Cognitive Architectures
%S Cognitive Models
%A Rieman, John
%A Lewis, Clayton
%A Young, Richard M.
%A Polson, Peter G.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 438-444
%K User models, Consistency, Exploratory learning, Analogy, Metaphor
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p438-rieman/p438-rieman.pdf
%X Users who have worked with just a few pieces of application software on a
computer system are often faced with the need to use a new program on the same
system.  Consistency between program interfaces is intended to make the new
program easier to learn in this situation, but how "consistency" should be
defined is not always clear.  We present a model of analogical reasoning that
describes how users rely on interface consistency to induce correct actions in
a new situation.  Versions of the model are implemented in ACT-R and Soar.  The
model yields a clearer and more principled understanding of design guidelines
that recommend interface consistency.

%M C.CHI.94.1.445
%T A Model of the Acquisition of Menu Knowledge by Exploration
%S Cognitive Models
%A Howes, Andrew
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 445-451
%K Exploratory learning, Cognitive models, Working memory, Practice, Menus,
Display-based knowledge
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p445-howes/p445-howes.pdf
%X This paper reports a mechanism that learns how to use a menu structure by
exploration.  The model, called Ayn, starts without any knowledge of the menus
but when given a goal, explores and tries out options until the goal has been
achieved.  During this process it constructs a long-term, recognition-oriented,
memory of its behavior so that on future occasions it will be able to achieve
the same goal without exploration.  The mechanism captures three aspects of
human behaviour: it learns whilst interacting with the device, it speeds up
with practice, and it acquires display-based knowledge.

%M C.CHI.94.1.452
%T Passive Real-World Interface Props for Neurosurgical Visualization
%S Interacting in 3-D
%A Hinckley, Ken
%A Pausch, Randy
%A Goble, John C.
%A Kassell, Neal F.
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 452-458
%K Three-dimensional interaction, Gesture input, Two-handed interaction, Haptic
input, Neurosurgery, Visualization
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p452-hinckley/p452-hinckley.pdf
%X We claim that physical manipulation of familiar real-world objects in the
user's real environment is an important technique for the design of
three-dimensional user interfaces.  These real-world passive interface props
are manipulated by the user to specify spatial relationships between interface
objects.  By unobtrusively embedding free-space position and orientation
trackers within the props, we enable the computer to passively observe a
natural user dialog in the real world, rather than forcing the user to engage
in a contrived dialog in the computer-generated world.
   We present neurosurgical planning as a driving application and demonstrate
the utility of a head viewing prop, a cutting-plane selection prop, and a
trajectory selection prop in this domain.  Using passive props in this
interface exploits the surgeon's existing skills, provides direct action-task
correspondence, eliminates explicit modes for separate tools, facilitates
natural two-handed interaction, and provides tactile and kinesthetic feedback
for the user.  Our informal evaluation sessions have shown that with a cursory
introduction, neurosurgeons who have never seen the interface can understand
and use it without training.

%M C.CHI.94.1.459
%T The "Silk Cursor": Investigating Transparency for 3D Target Acquisition
%S Interacting in 3-D
%A Zhai, Shumin
%A Buxton, William
%A Milgram, Paul
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 459-464
%K 3D interface, Interaction technique, Target acquisition, Virtual reality,
Fitts' law, Input, Depth perception
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%O Color plates on page 483
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p459-zhai/p459-zhai.pdf
%X This study investigates dynamic 3D target acquisition.  The focus is on the
relative effect of specific perceptual cues.  A novel technique is introduced
and we report on an experiment that evaluates its effectiveness.
   There are two aspects to the new technique.  First, in contrast to normal
practice, the tracking symbol is a volume rather than a point.  Second, the
surface of this volume is semi-transparent, thereby affording occlusion cues
during target acquisition.
   The experiment shows that the volume/occlusion cues were effective in both
monocular and stereoscopic conditions.  For some tasks where stereoscopic
presentation is unavailable or infeasible, the new technique offers an
effective alternative.

%M C.CHI.94.1.465
%T Direct and Intuitive Input Device for 3-D Shape Deformation
%S Interacting in 3-D
%A Murakami, Tamotsu
%A Nakajima, Naomasa
%B Proceedings of ACM CHI'94 Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
%D 1994-04-24
%V 1
%P 465-470
%K Human interface, Computer graphics, Input device, Computer-aided design,
Free-form deformation
%* (c) Copyright 1994 Association for Computing Machinery
%W http://www.acm.org/pubs/articles/proceedings/chi/191666/p465-murakami/p465-murakami.pdf
%X Standard input devices such as a mouse and a keyboard in present
computer-aided design systems do not provide users with direct and intuitive
facilities for highly 3-D shape manipulation.  To solve the problem, this paper
proposes a new interface system for 3-D shape manipulation by adopting a real
elastic object as an input device.  By deforming the device with bare hands
with a tactile feedback, users can manipulate a 3-D shape modeled and displayed
on a computer screen quite directly and intuitively.  A prototype with a
cubical input device made of electrically conductive polyurethane foam is also
presented.