| Redefining Tomorrow's User Interface | | BIB | 1 | |
| Michael L. Dertouzos | |||
| A Gaze-Responsive Self-Disclosing Display | | BIBAK | 3-9 | |
| India Starker; Richard A. Bolt | |||
| An information display system is described which uses eye-tracking to
monitor user looking about its graphics screen. The system analyzes the user's
patterns of eye movements and fixations in real-time to make inferences about
what item or collection of items shown holds most relative interest for the
user. Material thus identified is zoomed-in for a closer look, and described
in more detail via synthesized speech. Keywords: Eye tracking, Self-disclosing systems | |||
| What You Look At is What You Get: Eye Movement-Based Interaction Techniques | | BIBAK | 11-18 | |
| Robert J. K. Jacob | |||
| In seeking hitherto-unused methods by which users and computers can
communicate, we investigate the usefulness of eye movements as a fast and
convenient auxiliary user-to-computer communication mode. The barrier to
exploiting this medium has not been eye-tracking technology but the study of
interaction techniques that incorporate eye movements into the user-computer
dialogue in a natural and unobtrusive way. This paper discusses some of the
human factors and technical considerations that arise in trying to use eye
movements as an input medium, describes our approach and the first eye
movement-based interaction techniques that we have devised and implemented in
our laboratory, and reports our experiences and observations on them. Keywords: Eye movements, Eye tracking, Interaction techniques, Human-computer
interaction, Input | |||
| Measuring the True Cost of Command Selection: Techniques and Results | | BIBAK | 19-25 | |
| Richard F. Dillon; Jeff D. Eday; Jo W. Tombaugh | |||
| A technique that measures the impact of command selection on task time and
errors in described. Users were timed while performing a drawing task, then
while performing the same task with interpolated command selections. The
difference between these times, consisting of both the time to select the
command and to resume drawing, is the time cost of command selection. Several
interface configurations were evaluated with this method including selected
combinations of single mouse, two mice, voice and touch. Touch and voice input
resulted in faster command selection times (approximately 1 sec) than any of
the mouse conditions (approximately 3 sec). Keywords: Command selection, User testing, Input devices, Speech recognition, Mouse,
Touch screen | |||
| Automatic, Look-and-Feel Independent Dialog Creation for Graphical User Interfaces | | BIBAK | 27-34 | |
| Brad Vander Zanden; Brad A. Myers | |||
| Jade is a new interactive tool that automatically creates graphical input
dialogs such as dialog boxes and menus. Application programmers write a
textual specification of a dialog's contents. This specification contains
absolutely no graphical information and thus is look-and-feel independent. The
graphic artist uses a direct manipulation graphical editor to define the rules,
graphical objects, interaction techniques, and decorations that will govern the
dialog's look-and-feel, and stores the results in a look and feel database.
Jade combines the application programmer's specification with the look-and-feel
database to automatically generate a graphical dialog. If necessary, the
graphic artist can then edit the resulting dialog using a graphical editor and
these edits will be remembered by Jade, even if the original textual
specification is modified. By eliminating all graphical references from the
dialog's content specification, Jade requires only the absolutely minimum
specification from the application programmer. This also allows a dialog box
or menu's look and feel to be rapidly and effortlessly changed by simply
switching look and feel databases. Finally, Jade permits complex inter-field
relationships to be specified in a simple manner. Keywords: Automatic dialog layout, Look-and-feel independence, Direct manipulation,
Graphical specification | |||
| Surface Interaction: A Paradigm and Model for Separating Application and Interface | | BIBAK | 35-42 | |
| Roger Took | |||
| From the point of view of the application designer, user interface services
work by factoring some domain common to a range of applications, and
implementing this separately. Existing services, such as window managers,
UIMSs, or toolkits, either lack generality, or are limited in their
separability. A new interface paradigm, here called surface interaction,
separates application and interface by factoring presentation and its
manipulation, rather than dialogue or functionality. The surface is thus a
medium which can be controlled equally by the user or by the application. This
paper outlines Presenter, an implementation of a model for surface interaction. Keywords: UIMS, Toolkits, Window managers, Interactive graphics, Document processors | |||
| Using Constraints to Achieve Stability in Automatic Graph Layout Algorithms | | BIBAK | 43-51 | |
| Karl-Friedrich Bohringer; Frances Newbery Paulisch | |||
| Automatic layout algorithms are commonly used when displaying graphs on the
screen because they provide a "nice" drawing of the graph without user
intervention. There are, however, a couple of disadvantages to automatic
layout. Without user intervention, an automatic layout algorithm is only
capable of producing an aesthetically pleasing drawing of the graph. User- or
application-specified layout constraints (often concerning the semantics of a
graph) are difficult or impossible to specify. A second problem is that
automatic layout algorithms seldom make use of information in the current
layout when calculating the new layout. This can also be frustrating to the
user because whenever a new layout is done, the user's orientation in the graph
is lost.
This paper suggests using layout constraints to solve both of these problems. We show how user-specified layout constraints may be easily added to many automatic graph layout algorithms. Additionally, the constraints specified by the current layout are used when calculating the new layout to achieve a more stable layout. This approach allows a continuum between manual and automatic layout by allowing the user to specify how stable the graph's layout should be. Keywords: Graphical user interfaces, Graph layout algorithms, Layout constraints | |||
| A Snapshot of Natural Language Interfaces | | BIB | 53-55 | |
| Hans Brunner; Kent Wittenburg; Mike Williams; Yukiko Sekine; Sandy Dahlgren; Phil Washco | |||
| Propositional Production Systems for Dialog Description | | BIBAK | 57-63 | |
| Dan R., Jr. Olsen | |||
| The Propositional Production System (PPS) for describing interactive dialogs
is defined. It is shown to be a superset of state machines, window event
translation tables and event response systems. It is shown how dialogs can be
expanded by means of inheritance and how semantic control information can be
uniformly integrated into the dialog model. Optimizations are defined which
can tune the executable machine for either minimal space or minimal execution
time. Keywords: Dialog description, User interface management systems | |||
| Adaptive Semantic Snapping - A Technique for Semantic Feedback at the Lexical Level | | BIBA | 65-70 | |
| Scott E. Hudson | |||
| This paper describes the implementation of semantic snapping - an interaction technique that provides semantic feedback at the lexical level while dragging a graphical object on the screen. Like conventional snapping, or gravity fields, semantic snapping includes a geometric component where objects in close proximity are drawn together or "snap" into position. However, semantic snapping goes further by allowing non-geometric (semantic) properties of objects to place additional constraints on snapping. Semantic snapping also provides more complex lexical feedback which reflects potential semantic consequences of a snap. This paper motivates the use of semantic snapping and describes how this technique has been implemented in a window-based toolkit. This implementation works in an adaptive manner to provide the best interactive response in situations where semantic tests are very time consuming and strain the limits of acceptable performance. | |||
| Help by Guided Tasks; Utilizing UIMS Knowledge | | BIBA | 71-78 | |
| Robin Tuck; Dan R. Olsen | |||
| A help delivery mechanism integrated with a semantic UIMS is presented. The guided task paradigm is implemented where a user participates in a guided step-by-step demonstration. Help authors create task scripts composed of statements drawn from the semantic definition of the user interface. The help delivery system automatically translates such statements into user instructions which guide the user through the actions necessary to accomplish a task. Any application developed using this UIMS automatically gets this help authoring and presentation facility with no added effort. | |||
| Human-Computer Interaction Research at the University of Illinois | | BIB | 79-80 | |
| Arthur F. Kramer; Christopher D. Wickens | |||
| NTT Human Interface Laboratories | | BIB | 81-82 | |
| Takaya Endo; Hiroshi Ishii | |||
| User Interface and Quality Planning Department -- AT&T Bell Laboratories | | BIB | 83-84 | |
| Bruce H. Fetz; Mary Carol Day | |||
| Human Computer Interaction Group, University of York, U.K. | | BIBA | 85-86 | |
| Michael Harrison; Andrew Monk | |||
| Staff in the Departments of Computer Science and Psychology at the University of York have been cooperating in interdisciplinary research since 1983. The mainstream of York's approach is to apply theory developed in these parent disciplines to HCI design. Our goal is to integrate formal and empirical methods. By formal methods we mean mathematical models that are capable of capturing properties of a user interface. By empirical methods we mean the observation and measurement of user behavior. Integration of these two approaches is achieved by an iterative design process in which formal models are successively refined by testing their predictions against the results of user trials. | |||
| How Can We Make Groupware Practical? | | BIB | 87-89 | |
| Bob Ensor; Terry Crowley; Bob Kraut; Gail Rein; Lee Sproull | |||
| Using a Knowledge Analysis to Predict Conceptual Errors in Text-Editor Usage | | BIBAK | 91-97 | |
| Richard M. Young; Joyce Whittington | |||
| The knowledge analysis of a device and a task, when written in an external
Instruction Language and translated into rules for a programmable cognitive
architecture, enables a designer to predict conceptual errors in device usage.
This kind of prediction lies outside the scope of GOMS-based models. The
cognitive architecture, which is referred to as a "Programmable User Model"
(PUM), incorporates a limited problem-solving capability based upon means-ends
analysis and multiple problem spaces. The example presented, concerning a
simple text editor, illustrates the application of a PUM and demonstrates that
a correct description of local knowledge does not necessarily lead to correct
behaviour. This can serve to alert the designer to difficulties with the
usability of a proposed interface. Keywords: User models, Errors, GOMS, PUMs | |||
| Designing Minimal Documentation Using a GOMS Model: A Usability Evaluation of an Engineering Approach | | BIBAK | 99-106 | |
| Richard Gong; Jay Elkerton | |||
| The Minimal Manual proposed by Carroll, Smith-Kerker, Ford, and Mazur has
been demonstrated to improve the performance of novices learning a word
processing system. However, little research exists to suggest a practical
methodology for implementing the important features of a minimal manual. Using
the GOMS model, we incrementally modified a manual to include certain minimal
manual features: reduced verbiage, focus on real tasks, and error recovery
support. An evaluation of the manuals with novice users demonstrated
significant improvements in learning performance when the manual was modified
to be task-oriented with explicit procedural steps for accomplishing real
tasks. Keywords: Documentation, GOMS, Procedural instructions, Minimal manual, User's manual | |||
| Extensions of GOMS Analyses to Expert Performance Requiring Perception of Dynamic Visual and Auditory Information | | BIBAK | 107-115 | |
| Bonnie E. John | |||
| GOMS models of telephone toll and assistance operators (TAOs) are being
constructed in an effort to provide theoretical predictions of expert
performance on several dedicated workstations. This applied effort has pushed
the development of GOMS modeling techniques into the area of speech input and
output, and into a task where information is not always available when it is
required by the TAO. This paper describes the task, heuristics for
constructing the GOMS models, and parameters for making quantitative
predictions of performance time. Keywords: User models, Cognitive models, GOMS, Model human processor | |||
| The Design Space of Input Devices | | BIBAK | 117-124 | |
| Stuart K. Card; Jock D. Mackinlay; George G. Robertson | |||
| A bewildering variety of devices for communication from humans to computers
now exists on the market. In order to make sense of this variety, and to aid
in the design of new input devices, we propose a framework for describing and
analyzing input devices. Following Mackinlay's semantic analysis of the design
space for graphical presentations, our goal is to provide tools for the
generation and test of input device designs. The descriptive tools we have
created allow us to describe the semantics of a device and measure its
expressiveness. Using these tools, we have built a taxonomy of input devices
that goes beyond earlier taxonomies of Buxton & Baecker and Foley, Wallace, &
Chan. In this paper, we build on these descriptive tools, and proceed to the
use of human performance theories and data for evaluation of the effectiveness
of points in this design space. We focus on two figures of merit, footprint
and bandwidth, to illustrate this evaluation. The result is the systematic
integration of methods for both generating and testing the design space of
input devices. Keywords: Input devices, Semantics, Design knowledge systematization | |||
| Stereophonic and Surface Sound Generation for Exploratory Data Analysis | | BIBAK | 125-132 | |
| Stuart Smith; R. Daniel Bergeron; Georges G. Grinstein | |||
| The analysis and interpretation of very high dimensional data require the
development and use of data presentation techniques that harness human
perceptual powers. The University of Lowell's Exploratory Visualization
project (Exvis) aims at designing, implementing, and evaluating
perceptually-based tools for data presentation using both visual and auditory
domains. This paper describes several auditory data presentation techniques,
including the generation of stereophonic sound with apparent depth and sound
that appears to emanate from a two-dimensional area. Both approaches can
produce sound with auditory texture. Keywords: Exploratory data analysis, Sound perception, Multi-dimensional data
perception | |||
| Issues in Multimedia Interface Design: Media Integration and Interface Agents | | BIBAK | 133-139 | |
| Brenda Laurel; Tim Oren; Abbe Don | |||
| A central challenge in the design of multimedia databases is integrating
information from different media sources while reducing the cognitive load
imposed on users by the tasks of learning and operating the interface. In
light of results from a prototype multimedia project developed at Apple, we
believe that an agent-style interface addresses this challenge in several ways.
This paper discusses techniques for achieving media integration and details the
use of interface agents in facilitating `navigation', enhancing content through
point of view, and supporting users in a variety of instrumental and
experiential tasks. Keywords: Multimedia interface, Media integration, Cross-media links, Interface
agents, Guides, Point of view, Narrative | |||
| Participatory Design of Computer Systems | | BIB | 141-144 | |
| Jeff Johnson; Pelle Ehn; Jonathan Grudin; Bonnie Nardi; Kari Thoresen; Lucy Suchman | |||
| Usable OCR: What are the Minimum Performance Requirements? | | BIBAK | 145-151 | |
| William H. Cushman; Purnendu S. Ojha; Cathleen M. Daniels | |||
| Forty-two subjects used a microcomputer and word processing software to type
and proofread a 450-word document and then to correct errors in a number of
other documents (of the same length) that had been created by OCR simulation
[i.e., the documents looked like those typically obtained when using an optical
character recognition (OCR) device for text entry]. The "OCR documents"
contained both recognition errors (substitution errors, insertion errors, and
deletion errors) and unrecognized characters. The percentage of characters
requiring correction was varied from document to document. Text entry by OCR
was found to be faster than manual entry (i.e., typing) if the OCR device can
correctly recognize at least 94% of the individual alphanumeric characters.
However, 98% correct recognition and computer-assisted proofreading were
required in order to consistently obtain finished documents that had no more
residual errors than typed documents. Keywords: Optical character recognition, OCR, Text entry, Performance requirements,
Usability, Error correction, Proofreading, Spelling correction | |||
| Spreadsheet-Based Interactive Graphics: From Prototype to Tool | | BIBAK | 153-159 | |
| Nicholas Wilde; Clayton Lewis | |||
| The NoPumpG prototype suggested that the spreadsheet model of computation
could simplify the creation of some types of interactive graphical application
when compared with other approaches. We report here experience in developing
an enhanced follow-on system, NoPumpII, and describe three applications
developed using it. We conclude that (1) the potential advantages of the
spreadsheet model are realized in this application experience, (2) revisions to
the prototype design have permitted an increase in the complexity and scale of
applications, and (3) there remain limitations in the current design which, if
redressed, would further enlarge the scope of application. More generally we
conclude that alternative computational models are an important area of
exploration for HCI research. Keywords: Spreadsheet computational model, Programming environments | |||
| The Business Instrument Panel: A New Paradigm for Interacting with Financial Data | | BIBAK | 161-166 | |
| C. Torben Thomsen | |||
| The business instrument panel uses visualization to present, in a
comprehensive and integrated manner, all the important elements found in
traditional financial statements. By means of analog representation in a
simple computer generated picture, the business instrument panel replaces the
four traditional financial statements (balance sheet, income statement, cash
flow statement, and retained earnings statement). The business instrument
panel also embodies a new paradigm for understanding the business world and
empowers the user with an unparalleled quick understanding of any firm. Keywords: Accounting, Finance, Visualization, Model | |||
| Tools for Interaction with the Creative Process of Composition | | BIBAK | 167-174 | |
| T. Schiphorst; T. Calvert; C. Lee; C. Welman; S. Gaudet | |||
| This paper explores the nature of creative composition particularly as it
applies to dance, and describes the development of interactive computer based
tools to assist the composer. The hierarchical nature of the composition
process calls for an interface which allows the composer the flexibility to
move back and forth between alternate views and conceptual levels of
abstraction.
COMPOSE, an interactive system for the composition of dance has been implemented on Silicon Graphics and Apple workstations. The user visually composes in space and in time using menus of postures and sequences. Paths can be edited and an animation of the dance composition allows the final result to be evaluated. Keywords: Composition, Choreography, Human animation, Dance, Creative process, User
interaction | |||
| User-Tailorable Systems: Pressing the Issues with Buttons | | BIBAK | 175-182 | |
| Allan MacLean; Kathleen Carter; Lennart Lovstrand; Thomas Moran | |||
| It is impossible to design systems which are appropriate for all users and
all situations. We believe that a useful technique is to have end users tailor
their systems to match their personal work practices. This requires not only
systems which can be tailored, but a culture within which users feel in control
of the system and in which tailoring is the norm. In a two-pronged research
project we have worked closely with a group of users to develop a system to
support tailoring and to help the users evolve a "tailoring culture". This has
resulted in a flexible system based around the use of distributed on-screen
Buttons to support a range of tailoring techniques. Keywords: Tailorability, Modifiability, Customization, User interface design, Office
system, Design Process | |||
| End-User Modifiability in Design Environments | | BIBA | 183-191 | |
| Gerhard Fischer; Andreas Girgensohn | |||
| Convivial systems encourage users to be actively engaged in generating
creative extensions to the artifacts given to them. Convivial systems have the
potential to break down the counterproductive barrier between programming and
using programs.
Knowledge-based design environments are prototypes for convivial systems. These environments support human problem-domain communication, letting users work within their domains of expertise. One of the design rationales behind design environments is to ease the construction and modification of artifacts designed within the environment. But because design environments are intentionally not general purpose programming environments, situations will arise that require modifications to the design environment itself. The rationale and the techniques for these later modifications are discussed in this paper. Our conceptual framework for end-user modifiability is illustrated in the context of JANUS, an environment for architectural design. Evaluating our system building efforts against our objectives shows the subtleties of integrating end-user modifiability in these kinds of systems. | |||
| Data Characterization for Intelligent Graphics Presentation | | BIBA | 193-200 | |
| Steven F. Roth; Joe Mattis | |||
| An automatic presentation system is an intelligent interface component which receives information from a user or application program and designs a combination of graphics and text that effectively conveys it. It is a facility that assumes the presentation responsibilities for other programs. An important research question has been how information should be specified or described by an application program for it to be presented by an automatic presenter. This paper proposes a taxonomy of information characteristics which would need to be provided to either human or computer designers for them to create presentations reflecting the individual needs of a diverse group of users. The proposed taxonomy of characteristics defines the representational goals for intelligent interfaces which reason about graphical displays. | |||
| IShell: A Visual UNIX Shell | | BIBA | 201-207 | |
| Kjell Borg | |||
| IShell is a visual user interface for interaction using gestures under the UNIX operating system. A visual script language for building commands -- IScript -- is an integral part of the IShell environment. The user can directly describe and execute pipelined command sequences using gestures. The user is constantly guided by visual cues. | |||
| Real-Time Decision Making | | BIB | 209-212 | |
| Steven M. Jacobs; Randy Boys; William E. Hefley; Christine M. Mitchell | |||
| Powermice and User Performance | | BIBA | 213-220 | |
| Herbert D. Jellinek; Stuart K. Card | |||
| Claims of increased pointing speed by users and manufacturers of
variable-gain mice ("powermice") have become rife. Yet, there have been no
demonstrations of this claim, and theoretical considerations suggest it may not
even be true. In this paper, the claim is tested.
A search of the design spaced of powermice failed to find a design point that improved performance compared to a standard mouse. No setting for the gain for a constant-gain mouse was found that improved performance. No threshold setting for a variable gain mouse was found that improved performance. In fact, even gain and threshold combinations favored by powermouse enthusiasts failed to improve performance. It is suggested that the real source of enthusiasm for powermice is that users are willing to accept reduced pointing speed in return for a smaller desk footprint. | |||
| A Comparison of Selection Times from Walking and Pull-Down Menus | | BIBAK | 221-225 | |
| Neff Walker; John B. Smelcer | |||
| This paper reports on an experiment that investigated factors which effect
selection time from walking menus and bar or pull-down menus. The primary
focus was on the use of impenetrable borders and on expanding target areas on
the two menus types. The results show that both factors can be used to
facilitate menu selection, with the use of borders being most beneficial. In
additional, the results suggest that even on large monitors, the time required
to access items from a bar menu is less than that required for the best walking
menu. Keywords: Motor movement, Menu selection, Mouse movement | |||
| How Does Fitts' Law Fit Pointing and Dragging? | | BIBAK | 227-234 | |
| Douglas J. Gillan; Kritina Holden; Susan Adam; Marianne Rudisill; Laura Magee | |||
| Two experiments examined selecting text using a movement sequence of
pointing and dragging. Experiment 1 showed that, in the Point-Drag sequence,
the pointing time was related to the pointing distance but not to the width of
the text to be selected; in contrast, pointing time was related to both the
pointing distance and the width of the text in the Point-Click sequence.
Experiment 2 demonstrated that both the pointing and dragging times for the
Point-Drag sequence were sensitive to the height of the text that was selected.
The discussion of the results centers around the application of Fitts' Law to
pointing and dragging in a point-drag sequence, proposing that the target for
pointing is the leftmost edge of the text to be selected, and the target for
dragging is the rightmost edge of the text. Keywords: Pointing, Dragging, Mouse, Fitts' Law, Movement control, Movement sequence,
User models, Text editing | |||
| Testing a Walkthrough Methodology for Theory-Based Design of Walk-Up-and-Use Interfaces | | BIBAK | 235-242 | |
| Clayton Lewis; Peter Polson; Cathleen Wharton; John Rieman | |||
| The value of theoretical analyses in user interface design has been hotly
debated. All sides agree that it is difficult to apply current theoretical
models within the constraints of real-world development projects. We attack
this problem in the context of bringing the theoretical ideas within a model of
exploratory learning to bear on the evaluation of alternative interfaces for
walk-up-and-use systems. We derived a "cognitive walkthrough" procedure for
systematically evaluating features of an interface in the context of the
theory. Four people independently applied this procedure to four alternative
interfaces for which we have empirical usability data. Consideration of the
walkthrough sheds light on the consistency with which such a procedure can be
applied as well as the accuracy of the results. Keywords: Design methodology, Formal models of human computer interaction,
Walk-up-and-use systems | |||
| Updating an Older Interface | | BIBAK | 243-247 | |
| Marcy Telles | |||
| Much of the research in the field of human/computer interface is aimed at
the interface designer who begins from scratch. A different set of needs
confronts the designer who must update an existing interface without throwing
away the good elements of the old design and the knowledge base of experienced
users.
In this paper, the factors that contribute to the need for interface changes are presented, along with the special challenges that make change more difficult than new design. Approaches are suggested for dealing with the problems of updating an interface to make it effective for both old and new users. Keywords: Software interface, Updating interfaces, Older interface constraints | |||
| Heuristic Evaluation of User Interfaces | | BIBAK | 249-256 | |
| Jakob Nielsen; Rolf Molich | |||
| Heuristic evaluation is an informal method of usability analysis where a
number of evaluators are presented with an interface design and asked to
comment on it. Four experiments showed that individual evaluators were mostly
quite bad at doing such heuristic evaluations and that they only found between
20 and 51% of the usability problems in the interfaces they evaluated. On the
other hand, we could aggregate the evaluation from several evaluators to a
single evaluation and such aggregates do rather well, even when they consist of
only three to five people. Keywords: Usability evaluation, Early evaluation, Usability engineering, Practical
methods | |||
| Practical Interfaces to Complex Worlds | | BIB | 257-260 | |
| Robert Spence; Mark Apperley; Maddy Brouwer-Janse; Ernest Edmonds; David Kasik; Paul Rankin | |||
| The Computer Reaches Out: The Historical Continuity of Interface Design | | BIBA | 261-268 | |
| Jonathan Grudin | |||
| This paper examines the evolution of the focus of user interface research and development from the first production of commercial computer systems in the 1950s through the present. The term "user interface" was not needed in the beginning, when most users were engineers and programmers; it may again become inappropriate when more applications are written for groups than for individuals. But there is a continuity to the outward movement of the computer's interface to its external environment, from hardware to software to increasingly higher-level cognitive capabilities and finally to social processes. As the focus shifts, the approaches to design and the skills required of practitioners changes. In this paper five foci or levels of development are identified. Most development today is positioned in the third level and considerable research is directed at the fourth. Some attention is now being given to the fifth: repositioning the interface in the work group or organization itself. Work at the different levels is not entirely independent, so establishing a comprehensive framework may enable us to position existing research and development efforts and plan future work more effectively. | |||
| Developmental Scenario Analysis of Smalltalk Programming | | BIBAK | 269-276 | |
| Robert L. Campbell | |||
| In order to understand long-term learning and the acquisition of expertise,
human-computer interaction needs to take a developmental turn. Adopting a
developmental approach means using longitudinal research methods, building
developmental sequence models of the acquisition of expertise, and analyzing
tasks as scenarios specific to developmental levels. The psychology of
programming seems particularly amenable to a developmental approach because of
the length of time that it takes to become an expert. We propose a model of
seven developmental levels for Smalltalk/V programming, and provide sample
scenarios for each level. We conclude that developmentally ordered scenarios
convey valuable design information that would be lost in the standard "average
user" approach to scenarios. Keywords: Psychology of programming, Developmental psychology, Object-oriented
programming, Task and interaction analysis | |||
| Why Good Engineers (Sometimes) Create Bad Interfaces | | BIBAK | 277-282 | |
| Donald R. Gentner; Jonathan Grudin | |||
| This paper presents a view of system design that shows how good engineering
practice can lead to poor user interfaces. From the engineer's perspective,
the ideal interface reflects the underlying mechanism and affords direct access
to the control points of the mechanism. The designer of the user interface is
often also the designer of the mechanism (or at least is very familiar with the
mechanism), and thus has a strong bias toward basing the interface on the
engineering model. The user, however, wants to complete a task, and an
interface that is based on the task is often more appropriate than one based on
the system mechanism. We discuss these issues, and also discuss where to
position the user interface between the poles of the engineering model and the
task model. Keywords: User interface, Design, Engineering, Task model | |||
| Human-Computer Interface Laboratory, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University | | BIBAK | 283-284 | |
| Robert C. Williges | |||
| A description of the staff, facilities, and research focus of the
Human-Computer Interface Laboratory at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University is provided. Representative research projects as well as the
relationship between this laboratory and the human factors engineering graduate
program are also described. Keywords: Research laboratory review, Human factors engineering, Graduate training | |||
| CHI in the Applied Research Divisions at Bellcore | | BIBA | 285-286 | |
| Thomas K. Landauer; Robert E. Kraut | |||
| Bellcore has several active research programs relevant to human-computer interaction. This talk describes research conducted in the Cognitive Science and Interpersonal Communications Research Groups. We describe their research on information retrieval and on collaboration and pay particular attention to the styles of research employed in these groups and to the way in which behavioral investigations have guided technical invention. | |||
| CHI Systems Incorporated | | BIB | 287-288 | |
| Wayne Zachary | |||
| Interactive Systems Research Group - Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering (IAO) | | BIB | 289-290 | |
| Klaus-Peter Fahnrich; Jurgen Ziegler | |||
| Designing for International Use | | BIB | 291-294 | |
| Jakob Nielsen; Elisa M. del Galdo; Robert C. Sprung; Piyawadee "Noi" Sukaviriya | |||
| User Interface Requirements for Face to Face Groupware | | BIBAK | 295-301 | |
| Mary Elwart-Keys; David Halonen; Marjorie Horton; Robert Kass; Paul Scott | |||
| This paper discusses the user interface of the Capture Lab, a
computer-supported meeting room that has been in operation since late 1987.
One goal of the Capture Lab design is to support meetings of business people
(who are often novice computer uses) without requiring an additional person to
serve as a computer technician or facilitator. This paper discusses the user
interface features a system should have to support face to face meetings. It
describes the Capture Lab and how it is used, and presents our approach to
satisfying those interface requirements. Finally, we discuss a few of our
observations about the Capture Lab's user interface, and how a
computer-supported meeting environment affects meetings. Keywords: Computer-supported cooperative work, Computer-support meetings | |||
| Collaboration Awareness in Support of Collaboration Transparency: Requirements for the Next Generation of Shared Window Systems | | BIBAK | 303-311 | |
| J. Chris Lauwers; Keith A. Lantz | |||
| Shared window systems enable existing applications to be shared in the
context of a real-time teleconference. The development and successful use of
several such systems, albeit within limited user communities, testifies to the
merits of the basic idea. However, experience to date has suggested a number
of areas that have not been adequately addressed, namely: spontaneous
interactions, shared workspace management, floor control, and annotation and
telepointing. This paper focuses on the ramifications, for the software
designer, of various user requirements in these areas. While the
recommendations that result are motivated by the desire to enable continued use
of collaboration-transparent applications, addressing them involves the
development of systems software that is distinctly collaboration-aware. Keywords: Computer-supported cooperative work, Shared window systems, Desktop
teleconferencing | |||
| VideoDraw: A Video Interface for Collaborative Drawing | | BIBAK | 313-320 | |
| John C. Tang; Scott L. Minneman | |||
| This paper describes VideoDraw, a shared drawing tool, and the process by
which it is being designed and developed. VideoDraw is a prototype,
videobased, tool that provides a shared "virtual sketchbook" among two or more
collaborators. It not only allows the collaborators to see each others'
drawings, but also conveys the accompanying hand gestures and the process of
creating and using those drawings. Its design stems from studying how people
collaborate using shared drawing spaces. Design implications raised by those
studies were embodied in a prototype, which was in turn observed in use
situations. Continued research studying the use of VideoDraw (in comparison
with other collaborative media) will lead to a better understanding of
collaborative drawing activity and inform the continued technical development
of VideoDraw. Keywords: Collaborative systems, Design process, Work practice analysis, Gesture,
Video, User interface | |||
| Infinite Detail and Emulation in an Ontologically Minimized HCI | | BIBAK | 321-327 | |
| John M. Carroll | |||
| By default, we attempt to define practical areas of technological endeavor
as "applications." For example, the applied psychology of human-computer
interaction has characteristically been defined in terms of the methods and
concepts basic psychology can provide. This has not worked well. An
alternative approach is to begin from a characterization of current practice,
to take seriously the requirements of the domain of endeavor, and to define
areas of "science" and "application" as possible and appropriate in that
context. Keywords: Ontology, Theory, Hermeneutics, Interpretation, Task-analysis, Design
rationale | |||
| Contextual Design: An Emergent View of System Design | | BIBAK | 329-336 | |
| Dennis Wixon; Karen Holtzblatt; Stephen Knox | |||
| We offer an introduction to contextual design as an emergent method for
building effective systems. Contextual design addresses a number of the
inadequacies in previous methods by emphasizing: interview methods conducted in
the context of the user's work, codesigning with the user, building an
understanding of work in context, and summarizing conclusions through out the
research. We contrast this design method to usability engineering and artifact
examination. Keywords: Theory, Design, Methodology | |||
| Using Critics to Empower Users | | BIBAK | 337-347 | |
| Gerhard Fischer; Andreas C. Lemke; Thomas Mastaglio; Anders I. Morch | |||
| We describe the critiquing approach to building knowledge-based interactive
systems. Critiquing supports computer users in their problem solving and
learning activities. The challenges for the next generation of knowledge-based
systems provide a context for the development of this paradigm. We discuss
critics from the perspective of overcoming the problems of high-functionality
computer systems, of providing a new class of systems to support learning, of
extending applications-oriented construction kits to design environments, and
of providing an alternative to traditional autonomous expert systems. One of
the critiquing systems we have built -- JANUS, a critic for architectural
design -- is used as an example of the key aspects of the critiquing process.
We also survey additional critiquing systems developed in our and other
research groups. Keywords: Critics, Critiquing, High-functionality computer systems, Intelligent
support systems, Design environments, Cooperative problem solving systems | |||
| Collaboration for Technology Transfer -- or "How Do So Many Promising Ideas Get Lost?" | | BIB | 349-351 | |
| Keith Butler; David Kieras; John Thomas; Chuck Price; Thomas Allen | |||
| Reflections on Participatory Design: Lessons from the Trillium Experience | | BIBAK | 353-359 | |
| Jeanette L. Blomberg; Austin Henderson | |||
| In recent years system engineers, product designers, and human interface
designers have become increasingly interested in developing ways of involving
users in the design and evolution of computer-based systems. Some have turned
for guidance and inspiration to an approach to systems design pioneered in
Scandinavia and often referred to as Participatory Design. In this paper we
examine the development of a computer-based design tool, Trillium, which on the
surface looked like an example of Participatory Design in that users were
directly involved in the development of the technology. Our analysis leads us
to conclude, however, that Trillium's development departed in critical ways
from our current model of Participatory Design and to suggest that the manner
in which users are involved in the development effort plays an important role
in the success of the endeavor. Keywords: Systems development, Technology in use | |||
| The Organizational Implementation of an Electronic Meeting System: An Analysis of the Innovation Process | | BIBAK | 361-367 | |
| Joey F. George; Joseph S. Valacich; J. F., Jr. Nunamaker | |||
| Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS) are slowly moving out of university
environments into work organizations. They constitute an innovative method of
supporting group meetings. This paper reports on the innovation process in one
organization that has recently adopted and implemented an EMS. The paper
traces the innovation process through four stages: conception of an idea;
proposal; decision to adopt; and implementation. Important factors from the
innovation literature are considered as explanators of the innovation process
involving EMS in this particular organization. Keywords: Cooperative work, Implementation, Electronic meeting systems | |||
| Design of a Loading Plan Format for an Expert Cargo Loading System | | BIBAK | 369-378 | |
| Ron LeMaster; Ulla Merz | |||
| Many computer systems assist users in the performance of tasks by providing
metaphors for the tasks themselves. The success of such systems hinge on how
accurately and effectively the user interface represents those tasks. In this
paper we describe such a representation for the task of loading boxed
appliances into truck trailers. This representation was used to provide the
format for the loading plans generated by an expert system constructed to plan
the loading of such products. These plans tell the warehouse personnel that
actually load the trucks just where each product is to be placed in the truck,
how it is to be oriented, as well as where extra padding and filler material
should be placed. Keywords: User interface, Expert system, Task representation, Design methodology | |||
| Research on Human-Computer Interaction at the MRC Applied Psychology Unit | | BIB | 379-380 | |
| Phil Barnard | |||
| Boeing Advanced Technology Center | | BIBK | 381-382 | |
| Steven E. Poltrock; Keith Butler | |||
Keywords: User interface design, Rapid prototyping, Cognitive models, Natural
language, Decision support, Process management, Expert systems, Knowledge
acquisition, Collaborative work | |||
| The U S West Intelligent Services Research Laboratory | | BIB | 383-384 | |
| Catherine R. Marshall | |||
| Interactive Systems Group | | BIB | 385-386 | |
| Sarah A. Douglas; Gary W. Meyer | |||
| Evaluating Hypermedia Systems | | BIBAK | PDF | 387-390 | |
| Gary Perlman; Dennis E. Egan; Kate Ehrlich; Gary Marchionini; Jakob Nielsen; Ben Shneiderman | |||
| Hypermedia systems provide online access to complex networks of information
with the goal of making it easier to find and use information. To validate the
utility of their systems, several researchers and system developers have
attempted to collect evaluation data on the usability and effectiveness of
their systems and the features in their systems. Because of the potential
complexity of hypermedia systems and the information structures they may
represent, a variety of evaluation measures and methods have been used. These
trade off the need for timely feedback in the development of new technology,
the difficulty of controlling one or two variables in systems with dozens or
hundreds of components, and the goal of gaining an understanding of hypermedia
systems.
The key issues discussed by the panel include: Ecological Evaluation of New Technologies Embedded in Complex Systems: How can the utility of new technologies be evaluated validly when they must be embedded in complex software systems that include a hardware platform, underlying user interface, and a myriad of functions? Are controlled experiments necessary and can they be performed economically? What problems can occur in naturalistic settings? Measures of Learnability, Usability and Effectiveness: What performance measures are most useful? How does the choice of measure depend on the maturity of a system? on the tasks to be done with a system? Application to Human-Computer System Evaluation in General: What have been some results about hypermedia systems as a result of empirical evaluation? How does the evaluation of hypermedia systems apply to the evaluation of general systems? What guidance can be given to designers and users of hypermedia systems? Keywords: evaluate, hypertext | |||
| Designers' Models of the Human-Computer Interface | | BIBAK | 391-398 | |
| Douglas J. Gillan; Sarah D. Breedin | |||
| An experiment investigated the organization of declarative knowledge about
the human computer interface (HCI). Two groups of experts in user interface
design (human factors experts and software experts), and a control group sorted
HCI concepts into categories. The data were transformed into measures of
dissimilarity and analyzed using (1) hierarchical cluster analysis and (2)
Pathfinder, a program that generates network representations of the data. Both
expert groups had greater numbers of clusters, more elaborate clusters, and
better organized networks than did the controls. The two expert groups
differed with respect to the clustering of concepts related to display coding
and software. The Pathfinder networks for the two expert groups differed in
organization, with human factors experts' networks consisting of highly
interrelated subnetworks and software experts networks consisting of central
nodes and fewer, less interconnected subnetworks. The networks also differed
in the number of concepts linked with such concepts as graphics, natural
language, function keys, and speech recognition. The discussion focuses on (1)
specific differences in cognitive models between HCI experts and novices and
between different types of experts, and (2) the role of cognitive models in HCI
design and in communications within a multidisciplinary design team. Keywords: Human-computer interface (HCI) design, HCI models, Human factors, Software
development | |||
| Semantic Analysis During Exploratory Learning | | BIBAK | 399-405 | |
| Andrew Howes; Stephen J. Payne | |||
| This paper addresses the problem of how a novice computer user, engaged in
exploratory learning, accounts for the behaviour of the device. Exploratory
learning is the norm for many users who encounter computers in the work place.
Exploratory learners must acquire methods from a suboptimal stream of task
directed behaviour and its observable effects.
A candidate model of analysis, EXPL is taken as the baseline for the development of a new model, called Explor, which employs semantic knowledge of the lexical items used in the interface to relate user actions to system responses. The strengths and weaknesses of Explor are illustrated and discussed. Keywords: Exploratory learning, Analysis-based learning, Procedural semantics | |||
| Empowering the Student: Prospects for an Unintelligent Tutoring System | | BIBAK | 407-414 | |
| Mitchell J. Nathan | |||
| Computer based instructional systems either direct students so modelling
their actions is tractable, or provide them with total autonomy, but give
little support to learning and problem solving processes. Instructional
principles for empowering the student are emerging whereby more of the
responsibility of diagnosis and goal-setting is placed on the student.
Critical to this view is providing an environment which makes the ramifications
of students' actions clear so students can meaningfully assess their own
performance. In the domain of word algebra, the meaning of formal expressions
can be reflected in computer animation which depicts the corresponding
situation. An unintelligent tutor -- knowing nothing of the problem being
solved and possessing no student model -- helps students to understand problems
and debug formal expressions. Keywords: Active learning, Intelligent tutoring systems, Problem comprehension,
Discourse processing, Mathematics instruction, Cognitive psychology | |||
| Track - A Trace Construction Kit | | BIBAK | 415-422 | |
| Heinz-Dieter Bocker; Jurgen Herczeg | |||
| Track is a kit to interactively construct environments that trace the
execution of methods and the flow of messages between SMALLTALK-80 objects. It
enables the user to set up traces by means of direct manipulation. This is
done by placing obstacles between icons representing specific classes and
instances much in the way a jumping course is set up. TRACK may be used to
generate multiple visualizations of programs which may be concurrently run. It
is a browsing and debugging tool as well as an algorithm animation tool. TRACK
is tightly integrated with the standard tools of the SMALLTALK-80 programming
environment. Keywords: Visual programming, Program visualization, Construction kits, Tracers,
Algorithm animation | |||
| Smalltalk Scaffolding: A Case Study of Minimalist Instruction | | BIBAK | 423-429 | |
| Mary Beth Rosson; John M. Carroll; Rachel K. E. Bellamy | |||
| A curriculum was developed to introduce users to the Smalltalk
object-oriented programming language. Applying the Minimalist model of
instruction, we developed a set of example-based learning scenarios aimed at
supporting real work, getting started fast, reasoning and improvising,
coordinating system and text, supporting error recognition and recovery, and
exploiting prior knowledge. We describe our initial curriculum design as well
as the significant changes that have taken place as we have observed it in use. Keywords: Education, Learning, Design, Object-oriented programming | |||
| A View Matcher for Learning Smalltalk | | BIBAK | 431-437 | |
| John M. Carroll; Janice A. Singer; Rachel K. E. Bellamy; Sherman R. Alpert | |||
| The View Matcher is a structured browser for Smalltalk/V. It presents a set
of integrated and dynamic views of a running application, intended to
coordinate and rationalize a programmer's early understanding of Smalltalk and
its environment. We describe the system through two user scenarios involving
exploration of the model-view-controller paradigm. Keywords: Education, Discovery learning, Object oriented programming, Software
environments | |||
| Designers: Meet Your Users | | BIBA | 439-442 | |
| S. Joy Mountford; Penny Bauersfeld; Laurie Vertelney; Kathleen Gomoll; Bruce Tognazzini | |||
| Too few interface designers actually use an iterative design process. Too few interface designers actually involve their anticipated users throughout the design of an interface. In order to build better interfaces, we need to build faster and more numerous prototypical interface examples. These prototypes, from early sketches to working systems, should be shown frequently and often to users for their feedback. This panel is a vignette that illustrates an interface design cycle. Our panelists will be given a real world interface design problem, and the audience will follow them through their usual process of design. Users will be involved in the process, to help in interface specification and to provide prototype feedback. We expect that although the panelists involved users throughout their design process, users will still have a good deal more to contribute to the interface design before a product is finalized. On stage we will witness real users, with varied backgrounds, providing comments and feedback on the working prototypes. The issue here is to remind designers that there is never enough user involvement in an interface design. We need to iterate our interface designs, based on users' feedback, more often and continuously if our interfaces are to be effective. | |||
| What Can We Teach about Human-Computer Interaction | | BIBA | 443-449 | |
| Terry Winograd | |||
| This paper is the closing address for CHI'90. It addresses the problem of educating computer professionals in the area of human-computer interaction, arguing that standard approaches within computer science need to be augmented and that new models of education can aid us in producing students with broad competence in the design of computer systems for human use. | |||
| Designing Casual-Use Hypertext: The CHI'89 InfoBooth | | BIBAK | 451-458 | |
| Gitta B. Salomon | |||
| An interactive electronic information kiosk was created for the CHI'89
conference. Based on Macintosh technology, the "InfoBooth" included a custom
HyperCard interface built by a team at Apple Computer.
The design was initiated by examining the desires of potential users. Design changes, influenced by the results of informal user testing, were numerous. During the conference, user actions were recorded using an embedded "trace" program to allow for later usage assessment. This paper offers a case study for designers of similar systems. Aspects of the pre-conference design evolution are described. The impact of user testing is discussed and findings from the analysis of the trace data are presented. Keywords: Human interface design, Interactive systems, Navigation, Design process,
Graphic design, Hypertext, Hypermedia, User testing, Trace data | |||
| Summary of the CHI'90 Doctoral Consortium | | BIB | 459-460 | |
| Phil Barnard | |||